“发散思维”概念之我见

“发散思维”,是心理学,特别是创造心理学讲得较多的一个概念。它是与收敛思维相对的一种思维方式。它是指在思维过程中不受固定的范围和方向的限制,而沿着不同的方向、角度、标准去思考,充分发挥想象力、突破现有知识的范围,从一点向四面八方想开去,由已知探索未知。但是,值得提出的是,诸多心理学论著或心理学教科书、工具书,对思维的“发散性”与“求异性”不作严格区分,言“发散思维”又叫(或“就是”)求异思维,或曰:“Divergent Thinking又译求异思维”,等等。如顾明远主编的《教育大辞典(第5卷,教育心理学)》,杨靖主编的《简明心理学辞典》、张念宏主编的《教育百科辞典》、张述祖、沈德立编著的《基础心理学》、J.M.索里等著、高觉敷等译的《教育心理学》等等即如是说。笔者认为,这种提法和译文是不准确的,值得商榷。     

“发散思维”概念之我见

“发散思维”,是心理学,特别是创造心理学讲得较多的一个概念。它是与收敛思维相对的一种思维方式。它是指在思维过程中不受固定的范围和方面的限制,而沿着不同的方向、角度、标准去思考,充分发挥想象力、突破现有知识的范围,从一点向四面八方想开去,由已知探索未     

论儿童心理学与教育心理学研究的新趋势——生态学运动

多年来我一直主张要坚持在教育实践中研究儿童心理学与教育心理学,这不仅是理论联系实际的需要,而且也是儿童心理学与教育心理学研究的新趋势.坚持在教育实践中研究儿童心理学与教育心理学是国际儿童心理学与教育心理学研究的一个新趋势.现代儿童心理学与教育心理学的研究,是以科学方法的发展为基础的.     

论心理学文化品性

长期以来,关于心理学性质的理解一直存有争论,人们总是以自己的哲学观、心理观和理智背景来认识和解说心理学性质.从文化哲学视角来分析和探讨,会揭示出心理学对象、心理学者研究立场、心理学概念、心理学知识基础、心理学思维方式等诸要素与一定的价值立场和文化传统之间有着内在关联,其背后是强大的文化支持系统,这从整体上凸显了心理学的文化品性.探讨心理学文化品性旨在发现和建构心理学新的话语实践,使之成为重新解读心理学立论依据.     

目标追求过程中的权力效应

权力在心理学中被定义为一种对他人施加影响的能力。理论和实证研究都表明, 个体在目标追求的过程中, 个体权力感的高低对个体的目标追求的认知过程和行为结果都会产生影响。具体表现为在认知加工方面, 高权力者的信息加工抽象程度更高, 注意保持和分配能力也更好; 在行为结果上, 高权力者能更果断地设定目标、目标追求的行动力也更强。在权力和目标追求关系中, 预期自我调节的倾向类型起到中介作用。     

健康心理学在日本

一门新的心理科学分支已经在西方兴起,这就是健康心理学.它研究与健康有关的各种问题.既包括传统的医学心理学和心理卫生的内容,也包括社会心理学、工业心理学、儿童教育心理学和老年心理学等的某些内容,以及涉及健康的其它学科所探讨的问题.实际上,健康心理学是一个学科群,围绕着与社会-心理因素有关的健康问题展开研究.因此,它日益受到社会的关注.本文通过对日本健康心理学的产生及其研究状况的扼要介绍,     

十年来我国儿童心理学、教育心理学研究的内容分析

自1978、1979年以来,我国儿童心理学、教育心理学的研究工作有了很大的发展,研究者们对儿童心理学、教育心理学领域中的许多问题进行了广泛的探讨,做了大量的研究工作.对这些研究进行分析与评价,查明其存在的问题与不足,对于当前和今后的研究工作,特别是对提高儿童心理学、教育心理学的科学研究水平、促进这两门学科的发展,有着十分重要的意义.     

关于理论心理学的几个问题

本文探讨三个问题,即理论心理学的基本涵义、主要内容与重要意义.认为理论心理学是研究心理基本理论与实际理论的一门高层次心理学,其内容包含基本理论与实际理论两方面的问题,其研究意义在于融合、辨别、构建、发挥、预测与指导.     

改革开放30年中国心理学的发展

对改革开放三十年我国心理学发展进行回顾.目的是总结经验,了解过去,把握现在,谋划未来.这项工作,意义重大.从1978年至2008年中国心理学的发展可划分为重建期、稳步成长期和快速发展期三个阶段.改革开放30年中国心理学发展的基本经验是学术自由与园家的支持,自然科学研究取向与人文科学研究取向并举,人才培养与科学研究并重以及国际化与中国化的相互促进.中国心理学的来来将会对我国的社会发展以及人类的睿智、健康、幸福作出新的更大贡献.     

“朱智贤发展心理学与教育心理学基金会”章程

设立基金会的宗旨,为了纪念已故着名心理学家、教育家朱智贤教授为我国教育学事业、心理学事业所做的杰出贡献,鼓励年轻一代心理学工作者继承和发扬朱老的治学精神和爱国情操,为我国的心理与教育科学研究事业而努力工作,设立本基金旨在全国范围内奖励发展心理学和教育心理学研究的突出成果.本基金将成为全国发展心理学与教育心理学研究的最高奖励基金.     

Is imagery better than reality? Performance in imagined dart throwing

We investigated whether deviations from optimal performance are predicted in motor imagery. In Experiment 1, novices and experts imagined and executed dart throws. In imagination, they reported the final position of the dart. Experts performed better than novices in execution and imagination. Distance to the target and bias were smaller in imagination than in execution. In Experiment 2, we dissociated the roles of feedback from proximal and distal action elements for predictions. Three groups of novices estimated the dart’s final position in imagination, in execution without visual feedback, or in execution with delayed visual feedback. Estimates did not differ significantly between groups, indicating that (the lack of) feedback did not influence predictions. Deviations from optimal performance were lower in estimated than in actual performance. In conclusion, although predictive mechanisms may be similar in imagination and execution, the full extent of deviation from optimal performance is not predicted.     

Imagery of errors in typing

Using a typing task we investigated whether insufficient imagination of errors and error corrections is related to duration differences between execution and imagination. In Experiment 1 spontaneous error imagination was investigated, whereas in Experiment 2 participants were specifically instructed to imagine errors. Further, in Experiment 2 we manipulated correction instructions (whether or not to correct errors) and controlled for visual feedback in executed typing (letters appearing on the screen or not). Participants executed and imagined typing proverbs of different lengths. Errors and error corrections explained a significant amount of variance of execution minus imagination differences in Experiment 1, and in Experiment 2 when participants were instructed to correct errors, but not when participants were instructed not to correct errors. In Experiment 2 participants corrected and reported more errors with than without visual feedback. However, the relation between execution − imagination duration differences and errors and error corrections was unaffected by visual feedback. The types of errors reported less often in imagination than in execution were related to processes in typing execution. We conclude that errors and error corrections are not spontaneously imagined during motor imagery, and that even when attention is drawn to their occurrence only some are imagined. This may be due to forward models not predicting all aspects of an action, imprecise forward models, or a neglect of monitoring error signals during motor imagery.     

Tool characteristics in imagery of tool actions

Are tool characteristics represented in imagined tool actions? In two experiments participants imagined and executed coloring rectangles with a thick and a thin pen. In Experiment 2, an additional execution condition without visual feedback of coloring allowed us to dissociate between the relevance of kinesthetic and visual feedback. Pen thickness influenced coloring durations in all conditions, indicating that characteristics of a simple tool are represented during imagery. Imagination was shorter than execution, indicating that imagination may be less detailed than execution. Execution without visual feedback was even shorter than imagination, indicating that vision is more important than kinesthesis for differences between imagination and execution, and that either imagining the movement, inhibiting movement execution or imagining the progress of the action is effortful during imagery. In conclusion, characteristics of simple tools are represented in imagined tool actions but the representation of tools’ effects may not always be adequate.     

Motor imagery in typing: effects of typing style and action familiarity

The influences of typing style and action familiarity on executed and imagined typing were investigated. A group of touch typists and a group of hunt-and-peck typists were asked to imagine and execute typing texts of different lengths in two different styles: with ten fingers (familiar for touch typists, unfamiliar for hunt-and-peck typists) and with two fingers (unfamiliar for touch typists, familiar for hunt-and-peck typists). The imagination (but not the execution) of familiar and unfamiliar typing was correlated in both groups, indicating that participants used skill knowledge from the familiar action to imagine the unfamiliar action. Only when touch typists imagined familiar typing accurate motor imagery was observed (similar durations of and positive correlations between imagination and execution). When touch typists imagined unfamiliar typing, the average imagination durations resembled the execution durations, but correlations indicated individual differences in the processes of imagination and execution. Hunt-and-peck typists showed shorter imagination than execution durations with both familiar and unfamiliar typing, indicating that in both styles they did not imagine all details of typing. Also, they did not imagine some details specifically related to unfamiliar typing (reflected in particularly high percentages of absolute error). However, correlations indicated that individual difficulties in executing the unfamiliar action were reflected in the imagination durations. In conclusion, skill knowledge from familiar actions is used to imagine unfamiliar actions. Familiarity with actions promotes accurate motor imagery, but only if stable internal action representations have been acquired, and not if action control relies on online, step-by-step control. However, stable internal action representations of familiar actions may be detrimental for imagery of unfamiliar actions.     

Independent Development of Imagination and Perception of Fitts' Law in Late Childhood and Adolescence

Recent neurophysiological and behavioral research suggests perception-action systems are tightly coupled. Accordingly, Fitts' law has been observed when individuals execute, perceive, and imagine actions. Developmental research has found that (a) children demonstrate Fitts' law in imagined actions and (b) imagined movement time (MT) becomes closer to actual MT as age increases. However, action execution, imagination, and perception have yet to be assessed together in children. The authors investigated how imagined and perceived MTs related to actual MTs in children and adolescents. It was found that imagined MTs were longer than execution MTs were. Perception MTs were lower than execution MTs for children and more consistent with execution MTs for adolescents. These results suggest potential mechanistic differences in action imagination and perception.     

基于fNIRS的运动执行与运动想象脑激活模式比较

使用《运动想象问卷−修订版》筛选出的30名被试(男女各半), 采用功能性近红外光谱成像技术(fNIRS)监测被试在执行实际举哑铃(男生, 4磅和8磅; 女生, 2磅和4磅)任务和想象举同等重量哑铃任务时, 其大脑皮层氧合血红蛋白浓度的变化。结果发现：男女被试在运动执行与运动想象任务下都激活了主运动皮层; 且运动执行的大脑激活水平高于运动想象。在执行实际运动任务时, 运动强度显著影响大脑皮层血氧浓度的变化, 表现出左半球偏侧化优势; 在执行想象运动任务时, 运动强度没有影响大脑皮层血氧浓度的变化, 且无偏侧化现象。     

Cognitive demands of error processing associated with preparation and execution of a motor skill

Maxwell et al. [Maxwell, J. P., Masters, R. S. W., Kerr, E., & Weedon, E. (2001). The implicit benefit of learning without errors. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 54A, 1049–1068. The implicit benefit of learning without errors. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 54A, 1049–1068] suggested that, following unsuccessful movements, the learner forms hypotheses about the probable causes of the error and the required movement adjustments necessary for its elimination. Hypothesis testing is an explicit process that places demands on cognitive resources. Demands on cognitive resources can be identified by measuring probe reaction times (PRT) and movement times. Lengthened PRT and movement times reflects increased cognitive demands. Thus, PRT and movement times should be longer following errors, relative to successful, movements. This hypothesis was tested using a motor skill (golf putting). Furthermore, the association between error processing and the preparation and execution phases of movement was examined. The data confirmed that cognitive demand is greater for trials following an error, relative to trials without an error. This effect was apparent throughout learning and in both the preparatory and execution phases of the movement. Cognitive effort also appeared to be higher during movement preparation, relative to movement execution.     

Inhibition in motor imagery: a novel action mode switching paradigm

Motor imagery requires that actual movements are prevented (i.e., inhibited) from execution. To investigate at what level inhibition takes place in motor imagery, we developed a novel action mode switching paradigm. Participants imagined (indicating only start and end) and executed movements from start buttons to target buttons, and we analyzed trial sequence effects. Trial sequences depended on current action mode (imagination or execution), previous action mode (pure blocks/same mode, mixed blocks/same mode, or mixed blocks/other mode), and movement sequence (action repetition, hand repetition, or hand alternation). Results provided evidence for global inhibition (indicated by switch benefits in execution-imagination (E-I)-sequences in comparison to I-I-sequences), effector-specific inhibition (indicated by hand repetition costs after an imagination trial), and target inhibition (indicated by target repetition benefits in I-I-sequences). No evidence for subthreshold motor activation or action-specific inhibition (inhibition of the movement of an effector to a specific target) was obtained. Two (global inhibition and effector-specific inhibition) of the three observed mechanisms are active inhibition mechanisms. In conclusion, motor imagery is not simply a weaker form of execution, which often is implied in views focusing on similarities between imagination and execution.     

Imagination and the imaginary

This paper argues that real imagination depends on the capacity to acknowledge the absence of what is imagined from the world of material actuality. This leads on to a view of symbol formation as the operation of the transcendent function between the opposites of presence and absence. 'The imaginary' is contrasted with this as a defensive misuse of imagination that attempts to deny 'negation' where negation is defined as all those aspects of the world that constitute a check to the omnipotence of fantasy--e.g., absence, loss, difference, otherness etc. Parallels are drawn with theoretical antecedents in analytical psychology and psychoanalysis, with particular attention to papers published in the Journal of Analytical Psychology (JAP) in the 1960s on the relation between active imagination, transference and ego development. A clinical example is given to show the use of the imaginary as a means of warding off the unbearable pain of Oedipal disappointment.