The Significance of Family Structure in Internalizing (Anxious/Depressed) and Externalizing (Aggressive/Delinquent) Problems among Chinese Adolescents

The present pioneering study investigated the differences across various types of family structure among Chinese adolescents with proactive and reactive aggression. It aimed at providing frontline social workers and family therapists with inspirations for designing suitable interventions for adolescents with specific subtypes of aggressive behavior from different family structure backgrounds. After completing an online survey including the Reactive and Proactive Aggression Questionnaire (RPQ) and the subscales of the Child Behavior Checklist – Youth Self-report (CBCL-YSR) on aggressive behavior, delinquent behavior, and anxious/depressed symptom, 520 out of 13,338 Chinese adolescents aged 11 to 18 were randomly selected and stratified based on the types of family structure (intact family, single father family, single mother family, stepfather family, and stepmother family). Expectedly, boys elicited more proactive aggression, delinquent behaviors, and aggressive behaviors than girls. Besides, significant cross-structural differences were found between children from stepmother family, who showed more proactive aggression, anxious/depressed symptoms, aggressive behaviors, and delinquent behaviors, and those from intact family regardless of gender. The interaction effects between gender and family structure were significant for reactive aggression, anxious/depressed behavior, and aggressive behavior. An interaction effect showed boys from stepmother families were more reactively aggressive than those from intact families. In addition, more anxious/depressed symptoms were found in boys from stepmother family than those from intact and single mother families. In conclusion, the impacts of family structure on proactive aggression and delinquent behavior are not gender specific, but the impacts on reactive aggression and anxious/depressed behavior are only specific to boys.

     

Is there a Relationship between Family Structure and Substance Use among Public Middle School Students?

We investigated the relationship between family structure and substance use in a sample of 2,138 public middle school students in a southern state. The CDC Middle School Youth Risk Behavior Survey was utilized and adjusted logistic regression models were created separately for four race/gender categories (African American females/males, and Caucasian females/males) to examine associations among selected drug use variables (tobacco, alcohol, marijuana and inhalants). Analyses were adjusted for social economic status. Results suggested differences (p ≤ .05) among race/gender groups for the protective effect of living in an intact family (both mother and father, real or adoptive) regarding substance use among middle school students. In addition, family structure appeared to have a stronger relationship with substance use for Caucasians as opposed to African American adolescents. Caucasian adolescents living in cohabitated family households were more likely to report substance use, when compared to those living in intact two-parent households. Adolescents who are undergoing parental divorce may need special attention as they transition into new family structures.     

Adolescents' perception of the ideal mate: its relationship to parental characteristics in intact and nonintact families

The relation of adolescents' experiencing parental divorce, their perception of parents' characteristics, and their perception of the ideal mate's characteristics was investigated. One hundred adolescents from intact families and 79 from nonintact families were asked to rank both the degree to which each of 40 personality traits characterized their parents and the degree to which each characterized an ideal partner. The results indicated that there was no significant difference between adolescents from intact and nonintact families in the independence of their characterizations of their ideal mate and of their parents. However, differences were found on some of the personality dimensions that were investigated. These and other findings are discussed within the framework of psychoanalytic theory.     

Chinese adolescents' perceptions of family functioning: personal,school-related,and family correlates

The author used two translated measures (Self-Report Family Inventory; D. T. L. Shek, 1998); and Family Assessment Device; N. B. Epstein, L. M. Baldwin, & D. S. Bishop, 1983) and a locally developed scale (Chinese Family Assessment Instrument; D. T. L. Shek, in press-a) to assess 3,649 Chinese adolescents' perceptions of how well their families function. He found that boys perceived their families to function worse than did girls and that younger adolescents perceived their families to function better than did older adolescents. Perceived family functioning was negatively related to grade level; students attending schools with higher academic standards perceived their families to function better than did students attending schools with lower academic standards; and students attending government and aided schools had higher levels of family functioning than did students attending private schools. Family types (intact vs. nonintact families) and the duration of parents' stay in Hong Kong were also related to the adolescents' perceptions of family functioning. Findings for the personal, school-related, and family correlates of perceived family functioning were statistically significant and stable across different measures of family functioning, but the practical significance of the findings was not high.     

Mother-Adolescent Relationship Quality and Autonomy as Predictors of Psychosocial Adjustment Among African American Adolescents

This study investigated the role of mother-adolescent relationship quality and autonomy in the psychosocial outcomes in a sample of African American adolescents drawn from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. The results indicated that positive mother-adolescent relationship quality and greater autonomy were associated with higher self-esteem, fewer depressive symptoms, and less delinquent behavior. Moreover, adolescents who were older, female, or from households with less income reported more depressive symptoms. In addition, adolescents who were younger or female reported fewer delinquent behaviors. Being male was associated with higher self-esteem. Adolescents’ age, family income, and mother-adolescent relationship quality did not moderate relations between autonomy and the outcome variables.     

Peer-Group and Romantic Relationships in Adolescents from Intact and Separated Families

The impact of family structure (intact vs. separated) on adolescents' friendship and romantic relationship were assessed, using an Italian representative sample of 300 adolescents. Findings reveal some significant differences related to family structure. Compared to adolescents from intact homes, adolescents from separated families display a higher level of distrust of others, are less likely to foresee marriage as a certain step in their lives, and show a higher degree of fear toward marriage. Contrary to expectations, there is no significant difference either in the extent and the frequency of contacts with the peer network or the existence of a romantic relationship among the two groups of adolescents. Implications are discussed.     

The association between adolescents' attitudes toward suicide and their psychosocial background and suicidal tendencies.

The present study examined the relationship between adolescents' attitudes toward suicide and their psychosocial background. It also evaluated the association between attitudes toward suicide and the subjects' own suicidal tendencies. A questionnaire assessing these issues was administered to 525 Israeli adolescents. Results indicated that significantly more females, nonreligious adolescents, those exposed to suicidal behavior, and those with increased suicidal risk held more accepting attitudes. Ethnic origin, socioeconomic status, and living in intact/nonintact families were not associated with adolescents' attitudes toward suicide.     

Differences in family functioning in grandparent and parent-headed households in a clinical sample of drug-using African American adolescents

Grandparents play a critical role in African American families, providing support and important leadership functions. Little is known, however, about family functioning in grandparent-headed households with a drug-using adolescent. Such knowledge is particularly salient for researchers and therapists who work with drug-using adolescents and their families. Using a clinical sample of convenience, analyses were conducted to identify similarities and differences in adolescent substance use and behavior problems, family relationships, and family social ecology relationships between African American grandparent-headed (n=12) and parent-headed (n=54) households. Results indicated that adolescents from the 2 household types reported similar levels of problem behaviors, but that grandparents reported less delinquency with peers than did parents. Primary caregivers in grandparent-headed households reported less monitoring and supervision of peers and less within-family conflict. Implications for treatment are discussed.     

Adolescent separation-individuation and family transitions

This paper discusses the relationship between family structure and the achievement of the adolescent developmental task of separation-individuation. Adolescent separation-individuation is viewed as a continuum. At the right end of the continuum, adolescents reach successful therapeutic separation-individuation--a sense of self--while remaining connected to the family as a functional member. At the other end of the continuum is nontherapeutic dysfunctional separation-individuation. These adolescents are characterized by disruptive behaviors, rejection of societal and family norms, and potential suicide. Successful accomplishment of separation-individuation appears to be affected by a number of factors (e.g., conflict, parental relationship, accomplishment of previous developmental tasks). Adolescents from nontraditional families may have more barriers to overcome in order to therapeutically complete this task. Interventions to promote therapeutic separation-individuation need to incorporate all members of the family and support from the community. Through anticipatory guidance, dissemination of information, affiliating behaviors, and support groups, practitioners can help equip families with the skills needed for successful accomplishment of this task.     

Dimensions of family connectedness among adolescents with Mexican, Chinese, and European backgrounds

Multiple dimensions of adolescents' connectedness with their families were investigated among 489 9th-grade students (M = 14.86 years) from families with Mexican, Chinese, and European backgrounds. Participants reported on various aspects of their family relationships and completed diary checklists of daily behaviors for a 2-week period. Adolescents from European backgrounds reported levels of family identification and dyadic closeness with parents similar to or greater than those reported by their peers. For adolescents from Mexican and Chinese backgrounds, particularly those from immigrant families, family connectedness included a stronger emphasis on family obligation and assistance. The extent to which family demographic variables, including parental level of education and residence in a single-parent family, accounted for group differences was examined.     

Dating infidelity: behaviors, reasons and consequences

Older adolescents were surveyed concerning three issues: behaviors which constitute infidelity in a dating relationship, reasons for a dating partner to be unfaithful, and reactions to a dating partner's infidelity. Responses from 247 participants indicated more similarities than differences between dating infidelity and extramarital affairs with regard to behaviors, causes, and consequences. Results are discussed in terms of similarities between dating and marital infidelity, and the rationale for professionals to interact with adolescents concerning the potential long-term consequences of dating infidelity.     

Adolescent Adjustment to Parental Divorce: An Investigation from the Perspective of Basic Dimensions of Structural Family Therapy Theory

This study, conducted within the framework of concepts of structural family therapy, examined the relationship of four family-based, clinical dimensions to the adjustment of 45 adolescents during the first 18 months of parental separation. There were two samples of mother-custody families: an Aided group that applied for treatment, and an Unaided group of paid volunteers. The inclusion of this variable addressed a major methodological deficit of previous studies. There was a significant association between perceived postseparation family structure and adolescent adjustment, demonstrating that individual adolescent adjustment is contingent on structural features of the contemporary postseparation family. Further, Aided families were perceived as more chaotic, disengaged, and enmeshed than Unaided families, while Aided adolescents were characterized by more behavior problems than Unaided adolescents. This suggests that divorce, as an unscheduled transition, might be within the realm of adaptation for many families and adolescents and is not necessarily "disastrous."     

Correlates of attitudes toward sexual harassment among early adolescents

A survey of 458 early adolescents (87% White; 278 females and 280 males; Mage = 13) examined the interacting relationship between family environment and involvement with pop music, and attitudes toward sexual harassment, while also controlling for sex. Attitudes toward sexual harassment were assessed by an eight-item Likert-type scale constructed from common behavioral definitions of sexual harassment (reliability alpha = .89). Results indicated females held less accepting attitudes toward sexual harassment than males. Involvement with pop music was associated with acceptance of sexual harassment, especially for females. The combination of a high level of exposure to pop music videos, and being from an unsatisfactory or nonintact family, was strongly associated with acceptance of sexual harassment for females and less so for males. The findings of this study could have implications for the etiology of acceptance of other coercive behaviors among adults.

     

Family transitions during the adolescent transition: implications for parenting

This study explored how family transitions affect parenting practices in a sample of 7,000 ethnically diverse students in 9th, 10th, or 11th grade over a period of 2 years. Adolescent perceptions of parental control and parental responsiveness were assessed in three groups: (1) adolescents moving into mother-custody households following a marital separation or divorce, (2) adolescents from stable never-divorced households, and (3) adolescents from stable mother-custody households. The study examined pre- and posttransition data to determine whether adolescents in newly formed single-parent families experienced a larger drop in parental control and responsiveness than did adolescents in stable nondivorced and stable mother-custody households. Adolescents from all family types reported significant declines in behavioral control, but not parental responsiveness. However, the lack of family-type differences contrasts sharply with findings from the childhood-divorce literature. Findings suggest that adolescent individuation may overshadow family-type differences during middle adolescence. As expected, boys reported lower parental control than did girls. Ethnic differences revealed that European American adolescents reported the highest levels of parental responsiveness, and African American adolescents reported the highest levels of parental control. Contextual and individual pathways in adolescence are discussed.     

Lives in a balance: perceived family functioning and the psychosocial adjustment of adolescent cancer survivors.

Childhood cancer patients have a greater likelihood of long-term survival than ever before. This study examined both the perceived family functioning of adolescents who had successfully completed treatment for pediatric cancer and the relationship between family functioning and post-treatment adjustment. Eighty-eight adolescent survivors of hematologic malignancies were assessed regarding their family functioning, mental health, self-esteem, global competence, and problem behaviors. Contrary to expectations about the influence of cancer on these families, adolescent cancer survivors reported lower levels of family cohesion than the normative sample of healthy adolescents and their families. While current age, gender, age at diagnosis, and time since treatment completion were generally not associated with adolescents' adjustment, perceived family cohesion and adaptability were strongly related to post-treatment psychological adjustment.     

Father-absent adolescents with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus: A population at risk?

This study evaluated whether family structure is associated with the psychosocial functioning and physical health of adolescents with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM). Subjects were 30 intact families and 30 father-absent families. Adolescents and their mothers completed several self-report and observational instruments that assessed adolescent adherence to treatment, adolescents' and mothers' perceptions of maternal support and nonsupport of treatment, mothers' parental competence, and adolescent social competence. Metabolic control was determined by averaging the adolescent's hemoglobin A1c levels during the previous year. A 2 × 2 (Family Structure × Gender) analysis of variance was conducted on each dependent measure. The results showed that father-absent adolescents had better adherence to the IDDM treatment regimen, despite the fact that adolescents from intact families reported significantly more maternal support for treatment. In addition, single mothers reported relatively high parental competence; and statistical interaction effects indicated that single mothers of girls were more involved in the daily treatment of IDDM, consisting of both positive and negative interactions, than single mothers of boys. There were no between-groups differences for adolescents' metabolic control or social competence. Together, these findings suggested that the father-absent adolescents have adjusted very well to living with one parent and a chronic illness.     

An Empirically Derived Typology of Families: II. Relationships with Adolescent Health

In this report from the California Family Health Project, we describe the relationship between an empirically derived family typology based on parent data, and the self-reported health and well-being of 151 adolescent offspring. The typology is comprised of four family types: Balanced, Traditional, Disconnected, and Emotionally Strained. Three adolescent health indices were constructed from 13 self-reported health variables using principal components and multidimensional scaling analyses: Physical Health, Emotional Health, and Alcohol Abstinence. ANOVA indicated that Physical Health was significantly different among adolescents in the four family types. The findings varied, however, depending upon whether the typology was based on mothers’ or fathers’ appraisals of the family. In the father-based typology, adolescents from Traditional families scored highest while those from Emotionally Strained and Balanced families scored lowest. In the mother-based typology, adolescents from Balanced, Traditional, and Emotionally Strained families scored equally high, while those from Disconnected families scored significantly lower than those from the other three family types. Differences on Abstinence were significant only in the father-based typology. Adolescents from Traditional and Emotionally Strained families drank less than adolescents from Disconnected families. No significant differences among adolescents were found for Emotional Health, and adolescent gender did not interact significantly with family type to affect any of the three health indices. Traditional and Disconnected family types had offspring who clearly stood apart with higher and lower health scores, respectively. The results are discussed in terms of the current literature on social environment and health.     

Family structure and family processes in Mexican-American families

Despite increases in single-parent families among Mexican Americans, few studies have examined the association of family structure and family adjustment. Utilizing a diverse sample of 738 Mexican-American families (21.7% single parent), the current study examined differences across family structure on early adolescent outcomes, family functioning, and parent-child relationship variables. Results revealed that early adolescents in single-parent families reported greater school misconduct, conduct disorder/oppositional deviant disorder, and major depressive disorder symptoms, and greater parent-child conflict than their counterparts in 2-parent families. Single-parent mothers reported greater economic hardship, depression, and family stress. Family stress and parent-child conflict emerged as significant mediators of the association between family structure and early adolescent outcomes, suggesting important processes linking Mexican-American single-parent families and adolescent adjustment.     

Attraction and exchange in continuing and noncontinuing dating relationships

Measures enabling one to assess general feelings about a relationship, social exchange behaviors, and the particularism and symbolism of resources given to and received from another were examined longitudinally in 38 dating couples. These variables were first measured shortly after a couple began to date and again approximately 4 months later. We found that in contrast to what might be expected from prevailing theories of relationship development, the later status of couples (still dating or broken up) could be predicted with a high degree of accuracy from the initial measures. This finding corroborates and extends previous work dealing with same-sex friendships. Couples who were still dating 4 months later demonstrated greater love, more relationship-maintaining behaviors, more favorable evaluations of the dating relationship, and greater amounts of self-disclosure at the time of initial contact than did couples who broke up. Over time, these differences (as well as others) between couples who did and who did not continue dating intensified. In terms of the types of resources subjects gave and received from their dating partner, more particularistic and more symbolic resources were exchanged in continuing couples only later. Although both continuing and noncontinuing couples showed a decrease in the correlation between the love that members reported, this was offset in continuing daters by increasingly similar reports of reward, equity, and liking. Results are discussed in terms of initial versus gradually evolving differences between continuing and noncontinuing relationships.     

Family functioning and the adolescent mother: a systems approach

This study examines unwanted adolescent pregnancy and early childbearing within the context of the family system. Fifty pregnant adolescents and their families were interviewed prenatally and again during the postpartum period. Utilizing the concepts of structural family theory and therapy as described by Minuchin, certain characteristics of family style and structure of organization were rated. These family variables were then related to aspects of the adolescent mother's adaptation postpartum. Boundaries, in terms of degree of intrusiveness and differentiation, were related to such variables as whether the adolescent is maintained in the household and to her continuing relationship with the baby's father. Similarly, the family's style of dealing with conflict was related to the relationship between the adolescent parents, among other outcome variables. Implications of the findings both for working with these families and for further research are discussed, and issues are raised about hypothesized relationships between independent and dependent variables which were not borne out.