Linking Adult Attachment Styles to Relationship Satisfaction in Hong Kong and the United States: The Mediating Role of Personal and Structural Commitment

Maintaining a satisfying heterosexual relationship is important to many individuals?? happiness and physical health. Evolutionary theories on the formation of relationships suggest that adult attachment and relationship commitment are universal mechanisms for securing and maintaining such mating relationships. This study sought to understand how these two mechanisms may link to each other and how they in turn contribute to relationship satisfaction with one??s current partner in Hong Kong Chinese and American cultures. Similarities in the model for relationship satisfaction were found among young dating couples in the United States and Hong Kong. Specifically, attachment anxiety was positively linked to structural commitment, whereas attachment avoidance was negatively related to personal commitment. Both dimensions of attachment (anxiety and avoidance) and both components of commitment (personal and structural) were found to predict current relationship satisfaction significantly and equivalently across cultures, with the pathway from attachment avoidance to current relationship satisfaction similarly mediated by personal commitment in both cultural groups. These results were interpreted in terms of a probable universal logic informing the interpersonal dynamics involving attachment and relationship commitment.     

Unequally into “Us”: Characteristics of Individuals in Asymmetrically Committed Relationships

This study examined characteristics of individuals that are associated with being in asymmetrically committed relationships (ACRs), defined as romantic relationships in which there was a substantial difference in the commitment levels of the partners. These ACRs were studied in a national sample of unmarried, opposite‐sex romantic relationships (N = 315 couples). Perceiving oneself as having more potential alternative partners was associated with increased odds of being the less committed partner in an ACR compared to not being in an ACR, as was being more attachment avoidant, having more prior relationship partners, and having a history of extradyadic sex during the present relationship. Additionally, having parents who never married was associated with being the less committed partner in an ACR but parental divorce was not. Although fewer characteristics were associated with being the more committed partner within an ACR, more attachment anxiety was associated with increased odds of being in such a position compared to not being in an ACR. We also address how some findings change when controlling for commitment levels. Overall, the findings advance understanding of commitment in romantic relationships, particularly when there are substantial asymmetries involved. Implications for both research on asymmetrical commitment as well as practice (e.g., therapy or relationship education) are discussed.     

Fluctuation in on‐again/off‐again romantic relationships: Foreboding or functional?

This study explored how fluctuations in satisfaction and perceived partner commitment were associated with stability measures (e.g., commitment, perceived stability, relational uncertainty, turbulence) in both on‐again/off‐again and noncyclical relationships. Participants completed an initial survey, 8 weekly surveys, and a final survey. Results suggest fluctuation in perceived partner commitment across the weekly surveys was associated with all measures of stability when moderated by relationship type; fluctuation was negatively associated with the stability measures for noncyclical relationships but positively for on–off relationships. For fluctuation in satisfaction, this same pattern was found for commitment only. Overall, fluctuation, particularly in perceived partner commitment, was not viewed as disruptive for on–off partners; rather, fluctuation appeared to foster more steady and viable views of the relationship.     

Commitment and the perpetration of relationship violence

We employed the investment model of commitment (Rusbult, 1983) to examine the independent effects of commitment and relationship duration on the perpetration of common couple violence (i.e., instances of physical violence that occasionally arise in conflict situations; Johnson, 1995). Data are from self-administered questionnaires completed by 722 “currently dating” adolescents in the 8th and 9th grades in a rural public school district in North Carolina. Roughly 10% of the adolescents reported using violence (i.e., hitting, pushing, shoving, kicking, or assaulting with a weapon) against their current partner that was not used as self-defense. The majority of the violent relationships involved the reciprocal use of violence by both partners. Both commitment and duration exerted independent effects upon the perpetration of common couple violence. Consistent with the relationship violence literature, relationship members became more likely to use violence against their partner as the duration of the relationship increased. However, consistent with research that indicates that commitment leads individuals to forgo immediate-self interest and to instead maximize the needs of the relationship, relationship members became less likely to use violence as their commitment to the relationship increased. Furthermore, a gender difference was found in terms of the relationship between violence and variables that promote commitment. Although decreased relationship satisfaction increased the use of violence for both males and females, the increased quality of alternative relationships also increased the use of violence for males. The current findings are consistent with the idea that, whereas relationship duration simply makes partners more accessible to one another, commitment promotes cooperative strategies for conflict resolution.     

Commitment and satisfaction in romantic associations: A test of the investment model

Two experiments were designed to test the adequacy of the investment model of developing relationships in predicting satisfaction with and commitment to ongoing associations. According to the investment model, attraction to and satisfaction with a relationship is a function of a comparison of the relationship outcome value (both rewards and costs) to the individual's expectations, or comparison level. Commitment to a relationship is said to be a function not only of the relationship outcome value, but also the quality of the best available alternative and the magnitude of the individual's investment in the relationship. The intrinsic or extrinsic investment of resources serves to increase commitment by increasing the costs of leaving the relationship. Thus, increases in investment size, decreases in alternative value, and increases in relationship value should increase commitment to an ongoing relationship. In Experiment 1, a role-playing study, commitment to relationships increased with intrinsic and extrinsic investment size and decreased with the value of alternatives, but was not appreciably affected by relationship costs. Satisfaction/attraction significantly increased as relationship costs decreased. In Experiment 2, a survey of ongoing romantic associations, satisfaction/attraction was predicted by relationship reward value and relationship cost value. Commitment to relationships increased as relationship reward value and investment size increased and as alternative value and relationship cost value decreased, although the effects of cost value were weak.     

Level of commitment,mutuality of commitment,and couple well-being

Interdependence theory identifies level of dependence and mutuality of dependence as two key properties of interdependent relationships. In ongoing relationships, these structural properties are subjectively experienced in terms of commitment–dependence level is experienced as greater or lesser commitment level, and mutuality of dependence is experienced as greater or lesser perceived mutuality in partners’commitment levels. We examined the associations of these variables with couple well-being using data from two three-wave longitudinal studies. One study examined partners in dating relationships and the second study examined partners in marital relationships. Consistent with predictions, both level of commitment and perceived mutuality of commitment accounted for unique variance in couple well-being: Couples exhibited greater adjustment to the degree that the partners were highly committed to their relationship and to the degree that their commitment levels were mutual. Mediation analyses revealed that the association of mutuality of commitment with couple well-being is partially mediated by negative affect (e.g., anxiety, guilt) and partially to wholly mediated by trust level; perceived mutuality of power is not a reliable mediator of this association.     

LEAVING A SEXUALLY COERCIVE DATING PARTNER: A PROSPECTIVE APPLICATION OF THE INVESTMENT MODEL

In the present study, an investment model framework was applied to identify associations between partner verbal sexual coercion and dating relationship outcomes, including relationship commitment and maintenance. Undergraduate women ( N = 180) provided self-report data on investment model variables and verbal sexual coercion within their current relationships and returned 6 to 8 weeks later to report on their relationship status. About 28% of the participants endorsed partner verbal sexual coercion. Women in sexually coercive relationships reported greater investment but did not differ from other women in satisfaction, commitment, or later relationship maintenance. Results revealed indirect effects of partner sexual coercion on relationship commitment through greater perceived investment. Sustaining verbal sexual coercion in ongoing dating relationships may represent a type of relationship investment that indirectly promotes subjective commitment. Additional studies of verbal sexual coercion in committed romantic relationships are needed.     

Marginalized relationships: the impact of social disapproval on romantic relationship commitment

Little research has examined the effects of prejudice and discrimination on people's romantic relationships. The authors explored whether belonging to a socially devalued relationship affects consequential relational phenomena. Within the framework of the Investment Model, the authors (a) tested the association between perceived relationship marginalization and relationship commitment, (b) compared investment levels of individuals involved in marginalized versus nonmarginalized relationships, and (c) explored ways in which couples may compensate for decreased investments to maintain high commitment. Consistent with hypotheses, marginalization was a significant negative predictor of commitment. Moreover, individuals in marginalized relationships invested significantly less than individuals in nonmarginalized relationships. Despite investing less, marginalized relationship partners were significantly more committed than were their nonmarginalized counterparts. Thus, marginalized partners appeared to compensate for their reduced investments, with evidence suggesting that compensation occurs via reduced perception of relationship alternatives rather than via increased perception of relationship satisfaction.     

The role of moral commitment within the Investment Model

The Investment Model (Rusbult, 1980) defines general commitment as a long‐term orientation towards relationship maintenance and feelings of psychological attachment, influenced by satisfaction, quality of alternatives and intrinsic/extrinsic investments. We suggest the importance of additionally assessing moral commitment, defined by an intrapersonal predisposition to remain in the relationship (Johnson, 1991). We argue moral commitment's association to perceived intrinsic investments acting as internal barriers influencing general commitment and promoting relationship maintenance. A correlational study resorting to structural equation modelling showed that moral commitment predicted intrinsic investments, which in turn predicted general commitment (Model 1). No direct paths emerged from moral commitment to satisfaction or quality of alternatives (Model 2), nor it emerged as a fourth direct predictor of general commitment (Model 3). Results are discussed under relationships maintenance and dissolution frameworks.     

Love,commitment, and response to conflict among Cypriot dating couples: Two models,one relationship

Rusbult's investment model of close relationships posits that commitment is a function of satisfaction with the relationship, investments made, and attractiveness of alternatives. Relationship quality is also affected by how partners handle distress and conflict. They may practise exit (leave the situation), voice (speak out their concerns), loyalty (wait loyally for the problem to pass), or neglect (passive‐aggressive or avoidant tactics). Sternberg's triangular theory of love, on the other hand, posits that the ingredients of a successful relationship are passion, intimacy, and commitment. All three are required to produce long‐lasting consummate love, whereas the absence of any of the components leads to other types of relationships such as friendships and infatuations. These models have received cross‐cultural validation in previous research. Their applicability to dating relationships in Cyprus was tested in this study. The primary aim was to examine the applicability of these models to dating relationships in Cyprus and the second aim was to examine whether a combination of these models predicts relationship commitment better than either model alone. An additional goal was to add to the particularly scarce research on intimate relationships among Cypriots. Results indicate that both models are predictive of commitment, but that the triangular model does not add to the predictive power of the investment model. On the contrary, the concept of investment, as measured by the investment model, appears to be important in the understanding of commitment in dating relationships. Conflict resolution styles were also related to relationship quality, consistent with the predictions of the investment model, but in variance with findings regarding married couples in Cyprus. Results are discussed in light of the relevant models, and in comparison to findings of prior research regarding the application of the investment model to marital relationships. The role of the cultural context is also addressed.     

Factors predicting future time orientation for romantic relationships with the opposite sex.

The author examines the possible connection of predictors of future time orientation to romantic relationships with the opposite sex using the Future Time Orientation in Romantic Relationships Scale (FTORR; B. Oner, 2000b). The variables suggested as correlates with FTORR scores in B. Oner's (2000a) study were subjected to regression analysis. The results indicated that relationship satisfaction and an eagerness to break up negative relationships were negatively related to FTORR scores, whereas being a woman, experiencing jealousy, and the degree of selectivity in choosing a dating partner were positively related to FTORR scores. Caution and relationship commitment both predicted FTORR scores through the mediating effect of relationship satisfaction. The author discusses the implications of the findings.     

Investigating contingencies: an examination of the impact of span of supervision and upward controllingness on leader-member exchange using traditional and multivariate within- and between-entities analysis

Using a sample of 150 bank employees, span of supervision and subordinate use of influence tactics were examined as moderators of relationships between leader-member exchange (LMX) and subordinate performance and organizational commitment. Raw score analyses indicate that moderators are present. Span of supervision and upward controlling influence tactics moderate relationships between LMX and both performance and commitment. However, using multiple relationship analysis and multivariate within- and between-entities analysis to assess the level of analysis results in some discrepant findings. These discrepancies are discussed, as are implications for future LMX research.     

Antecedents and outcomes of unit cohesion and affective commitment to the Army

Group cohesion and affective commitment have shown to have critical relevance to military organizations in particular. The relationship between cohesion and affective commitment is established, and the two constructs share a number of common organizational antecedents and employee outcomes. The authors explored the relationship between cohesion and affective commitment in a model that incorporates antecedents (effectiveness of immediate leadership and procedural justice) and consequences (organizational citizenship behaviors [OCBs] and turnover intentions) common to both. Respondents (N = 714, 102 women, 612 men) were Canadian Army personnel. The models suggest that cohesion partially mediates the relationships between (a) perceptions of immediate leadership and affective commitment to the Army and (b) perceptions of unit procedural justice and affective commitment to the Army. Furthermore, affective commitment to the Army partially mediates the relationship between unit cohesion and turnover intentions but fully mediates the relationship between unit cohesion and OCBs. This model helps explain some common variance between unit cohesion and organizational affective commitment.     

Thinking about commitment: Accessibility of commitment and prediction of relationship persistence,accommodation, and willingness to sacrifice

Research has demonstrated that more accessible cognitive constructs (e.g., attitudes, stereotypes) are more likely to influence thoughts and behaviors. The current research applies a social cognition framework to the prediction of romantic relationship persistence (i.e., “stay‐leave” behavior), accommodation, and willingness to sacrifice. Conceptualizing commitment as a partially cognitive construct and following from social cognition and attitudinal research, we hypothesized that the accessibility of commitment will moderate the association between commitment and relationship persistence, accommodative responses, and willingness to sacrifice. In Study 1, participants in romantic relationships responded to statements derived from the commitment subscale of the Investment Model Scale. Reaction times to these statements were used as a measure of accessibility of commitment. In addition, participants completed measures of their commitment level. Seven months later, participants were contacted and relationship persistence was assessed. Accessibility of commitment significantly moderated the association between commitment and relationship persistence. Study 2 expanded on the results of the first study by demonstrating that accessibility of commitment also significantly moderated the association between commitment and accommodation and willingness to sacrifice. Taken together, these two studies highlight the usefulness of applying social cognitive concepts to understand close relationships.     

Committing to your work, spouse, and children: Implications for work-family conflict

When trying to balance work and family responsibilities, many workers experience conflict between these two roles. Although role commitment has been viewed both as contributing to and alleviating conflict, this relationship has not been fully tested. Using a sample of female nurses and police officers, we examined the direct and indirect relationship of role commitment with work-spouse and work-parent conflict. Increased work-spouse conflict was associated with decreased spouse commitment. Increased work-parent conflict was associated with increased parent commitment but with decreased spouse and job commitment. Job commitment moderated the relationships between irregular work schedules and work-spouse conflict and between job control and work-spouse conflict. Parent commitment moderated the relationship between irregular work schedules and work-parent conflict. These results suggest that, depending on the role, commitment may either alleviate or exacerbate conflict.     

Sociosexual orientation, commitment, and infidelity: a mediation analysis

Individuals with an unrestricted sociosexual orientation (SO) are less committed to their romantic relationships and more likely to engage in infidelity. Furthermore, commitment is negatively associated with tendencies to cheat. However, no previous research has examined the possible mediating role of commitment in the relationship between SO and infidelity. The current study examined whether commitment mediated the relationship between SO and willingness to engage in three types of cheating behaviors (Ambiguous, Deceptive, and Explicit). Results suggested that commitment partially mediated the relationship between SO and infidelity, such that unrestricted individuals had lower commitment, which in turn led to a greater likelihood of cheating. Implications of this association and directions for future research are discussed.     

Relationships between in-role performance and individual values, commitment, and organizational citizenship behavior among Israeli teachers

This study examines the relationship between (1) individual values, (2) organizational and occupational commitment, and (3) organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) and in-role performance in a sample of 192 teachers employed in 10 secular Jewish schools (response rate of 64%). The results showed that individual values were related to all commitment forms examined here, but contrary to expectations, there was no clear distinction between values that represent conservation and self-transcendence and values that represent openness to change and self-enhancement in terms of their relationship either to commitment or to behavioral outcomes. Likewise, there was no clear distinction between the three dimensions of commitment (affective, continuance, and normative) or two commitment foci (organizational and occupational) in terms of their relationships to different values. Unsurprisingly, the findings showed a strong effect of commitment on OCB and in-role performance. The findings show that both individual values and commitment are concepts that can increase our understanding of employees' behavior in the workplace. We conclude by emphasizing the need for further research on the relationship between values, commitment, and performance and by suggesting some directions for such research.     

Relationship Characteristics and Risk of HIV Infection: Rusbult's Investment Model and Sexual Risk Behavior of Gay Men in Steady Relationships1

This study examined the effects of relationship characteristics, as measured by Rusbult's (1980) investment model, on safer‐sex behavior between steady gay male partners. Analyses showed that low satisfaction with the relationship was associated with more risky unprotected anal intercourse (UAI). High commitment to the relationship was associated with more practice of negotiated safety (i.e., having safe UAI after both partners have tested negative for HIV and have reached sexual safety agreements). High relationship investment was associated with more risky UAI (borderline significant). We conclude that using relationship satisfaction, commitment, and investment as co‐determinants of sexual risk behavior could prove useful in the development of new HIV‐prevention strategies for gay men in relationships.     

Factors Predicting Future Time Orientation for Romantic Relationships With the Opposite Sex

The author examines the possible connection of predictors of future time orientation to romantic relationships with the opposite sex using the Future Time Orientation in Romantic Relationships Scale (FTORR; B. Öner, 2000b). The variables suggested as correlates with FTORR scores in B. Öner's (2000a) study were subjected to regression analysis. The results indicated that relationship satisfaction and an eagerness to break up negative relationships were negatively related to FTORR scores, whereas being a woman, experiencing jealousy, and the degree of selectivity in choosing a dating partner were positively related to FTORR scores. Caution and relationship commitment both predicted FTORR scores through the mediating effect of relationship satisfaction. The author discusses the implications of the findings.