Problem Drinking: A Problem for the Theory of Reasoned Action?1

The present study examined the sufficiency of the theory of reasoned action (TRA) to predict intention and behavior with respect to problem drinking, as well as the ability of the theory of planned behavior (TPB) to predict intention and behavior over and above the TRA. The role of perceived control in the TPB was also examined. A 12-year longitudinal study on alcohol and drug use attitudes and behavior provided the context for this investigation. Two criterion variables were examined: intention to get drunk and frequency of getting drunk. It was hypothesized that heavier drinkers would perceive less control over their drinking. Coincidentally, the TRA, which assumes the behavior being predicted is volitional, would become less predictive as drinking became heavier. Furthermore, the TPB, which extends the TRA to include perceived (volitional) control over the behavior would be more predictive of intention and behavior than the TRA. All three hypotheses were supported. In addition, perceived control proved to be differentially predictive for nonproblem and problem drinkers. Specifically, perceived control contributed to the prediction of intention to get drunk for nonproblem drinkers, but to the prediction of behavior (frequency of getting drunk) for problem drinkers. Implications of these results for theory development and application are discussed.     

Benevolent Sexism, Perceived Health Risks, and the Inclination to Restrict Pregnant Women��s Freedoms

The present study investigated the role of sexist ideology in perceptions of health risks during pregnancy and willingness to intervene on pregnant women??s behavior. Initially, 160 female psychology undergraduates in the South East of England completed the Ambivalent Sexism Inventory (Glick and Fiske 1996). Two months later, in an apparently unrelated study, they rated the safety of 45 behaviours during pregnancy (e.g., drinking alcohol, exercising, drinking tap water, and oral sex), and indicated their willingness to restrict pregnant women??s choices (e.g., by refusing to serve soft cheese or alcohol). As predicted, benevolent (but not hostile) sexism was related to willingness to restrict pregnant women??s choices. This effect was partially mediated by the perception that various behaviors are unsafe during pregnancy.     

Binge drinking among young adults in Israel: application of the theory of planned behavior

Binge drinking is common among young people, and is an area of concern in many countries worldwide. Israel has seen a steady increase in binge drinking behaviors in recent years among youth and young adults. Using the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) as a guiding theoretical framework, this study examines whether attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control and intention to engage in binge drinking are correlated with individual participation in binge drinking among young adults aged 18–35 in Israel. Participants (n = 213) completed a cross-sectional survey that included measures of the TPB and binge drinking. Correlations between the TPB variables were conducted and multiple and logistic regression models were calculated to predict binge drinking intention and behavior. Findings show that 38% of the sample reported engaging in binge drinking activities in the past 30 days, and that TPB variables significantly predicted both intent to engage in binge drinking and the behavior itself (explaining 68 and 45% of the variance, respectively). These findings enable us to better understand some of the motivations young people may have for engaging in binge drinking. Results and implications for future education and prevention efforts, research and policy are therefore discussed within a social context.     

Action versus inaction: anticipated affect in the theory of planned behavior

Theory of planned behavior (TPB) variables and anticipated affect were assessed in relation to drinking and avoiding alcohol and in relation to eating and avoiding fast food. It was shown that previously reported residual effects of anticipated affect in the prediction of intentions are obtained only when the TPB variables are assessed with respect to one behavior (action or inaction) and anticipated affect is measured in relation to the alternative behavior. When all variables were assessed with respect to the same behavior, anticipated affect made no independent contribution to the prediction of intentions, nor did anticipated affect retain a residual effect when the TPB constructs in relation to the alternative action were included in the prediction equation.     

The theory of planned behavior as a model of heavy episodic drinking among college students.

This study provided a simultaneous confirmatory test of the theory of planned behavior (TPB) in predicting heavy episodic drinking (HED) among college students. It was hypothesized that past HED, drinking attitudes, subjective norms, and drinking refusal self-efficacy would predict intention, which would, in turn, predict future HED. Participants consisted of 131 college drinkers (63% women) who reported having engaged in HED in the previous 2 weeks. Participants were recruited and completed questionnaires within the context of a larger intervention study (see Collins & Carey, 2005). Latent factor structural equation modeling was used to test the ability of the TPB to predict HED. Chi-square tests and fit indices indicated good fit for the final structural models. Self-efficacy and attitudes but not subjective norms significantly predicted baseline intention, and intention and past HED predicted future HED. Contrary to hypotheses, however, a structural model excluding past HED provided a better fit than a model including it. Although further studies must be conducted before a definitive conclusion is reached, a TPB model excluding past behavior, which is arguably more parsimonious and theory driven, may predict HED among college drinkers better than a model including past behavior.     

Cycling under the influence of alcohol in Germany

Cyclists have a relatively high risk of being injured in traffic accidents. In Germany, statistics have shown that cyclists injured in police-reported traffic accidents are often found to have cycled with high blood alcohol levels. Relevant research has discussed the ability of the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB; Ajzen, 1991), deterrence factors, and habitual behavior to predict unsafe and rule-violating behavior in traffic. To promote safer cycling, the relative contributions of these predictors must be determined to design efficient countermeasures. In an online survey, N = 353 participants reported cycling and drinking behaviors for 1 week and answered questions on the TPB, deterrence, and additional predictors. Perceived social norms were quite permissive and perceived behavioral control when cycling under the influence (CUI) of alcohol was quite high. Furthermore, a third of the cyclists reported CUI. Participants with experience of CUI reported having consumed large amounts of alcohol before cycling. High levels of cycling, a permissive attitude, and greater alcohol consumption per drinking episode predicted the number of CUI trips. The amount of alcohol consumed before one CUI trip was predicted by high perceived behavioral control when CUI, a high level of need for stimulation, and higher habitual alcohol consumption per drinking episode. Deterrence factors were found to have no influence on reported CUI. Overall, the findings suggested that Germans who habitually drink a large amount of alcohol are not deterred from CUI in the same manner that they would be from driving under the influence (DUI). The generally permissive perceived social norms did not differentiate between CUI and non-CUI cyclists, which indicated that a societal effort is required to balance the mismatch between CUI and DUI. In addition, changing the general drinking behaviors of highly educated Germans who cycle, would be beneficial for their health.     

Sexual Hookups and Alcohol Consumption Among African American and Caucasian College Students: A Pilot Study

This study investigated college students’ sexual hooking up and its associations with alcohol consumption for men and women; furthermore, potential differences related to ethnicity were investigated. Students at a midsized southeastern university who identified as Caucasian or African American (N = 227) completed a survey assessing sexual behavior, demographics, and alcohol consumption. Heavy drinking was associated with ever hooking up, number of hookup partners, hookup frequency, and level of sexual contact during hooking up for Caucasian students, but not for their African American peers. Among Caucasians, moderate drinking men reported more intense sexual contact during hookups than their female peers who were moderate drinkers; sexual contact levels were more similar for men and women who were either nondrinkers or heavy drinkers. Limitations and strengths are discussed, as are ideas for future studies on hooking up and for educational efforts to protect against potentially negative outcomes of hooking up.     

Academic career intention beyond the PhD: can the theory of planned behavior explain gender differences?

Are women less interested in becoming professors than men? We applied the theory of planned behavior (TPB) to investigate the intention to pursue an academic career. Postdocs who recently finished their PhD at a German university participated in an online survey (N = 380, mean age: 33; 45% women). Women reported lower academic career intentions (d = 0.40); TPB variables (attitude, subjective norm, self‐efficacy) explained 87% of this gender difference. At an 8 month follow‐up, we found no gender difference in the intention to continue in an academic career among the postdocs who were still working in academia (n = 129). Addressing TPB constructs early in women's academic careers could encourage them to remain in academia and strive for a professorship.     

Women who use exercise as a compensatory behavior: How do they differ from those who do not?

ObjectivesThis research examined group differences between women who reported using exercise as a compensatory behavior (ECB; n = 73) and women who did not report using exercise as a compensatory behavior (NECB; n = 133) on alcohol and exercise behavior, drinking and exercise motivation, and several related constructs.DesignA cross-sectional design was used.MethodsUndergraduate women (M age = 19.5 years, SD = 3.01 years) completed self-report measures regarding their alcohol use, alcohol-related problems, exercise behavior, alcohol and exercise motivations, impulsivity, body dissatisfaction, and dietary restraint.ResultsResults indicated that women in the ECB group reported consuming more alcohol, more binge drinking episodes, more alcohol-related problems, higher alcohol and exercise motivations, more exercise, and greater impulsivity, body dissatisfaction, and dietary restraint than women in the NECB group (p's ranging from <.0001 to .017).ConclusionsInterestingly, women who use exercise as a compensatory behavior consumed higher amounts of alcohol, but did not drink more frequently than women who did not use exercise as a compensatory behavior. Women who use exercise as a compensatory behavior also endorse drinking and exercise motives more strongly than women who did not use exercise as a compensatory behavior.     

Stages of change for health-related behaviours in 18 year-old Australians

Abstract

This study investigated the validity of a Stages of Change algorithm with respect to independent measures of physical activity and fitness. dietary intake and alcohol consumption in 18 year-old Ausmlian men (n = 301) and women (n = 282). Stage of Change categories were related to fat and fibre intakes in men and fibre intake in women as well as hit and vegetable intakes in men and women. Physical activity and fitness for men and women also showed significant linear associations with Stage of Change categories. Alcohol consumption was significantly associated with Stage of Change categories for men but not for women although recorded alcohol consumption was very variable for women. However, the algorithm was valid for both men and women when drinking alcohol consistent with national guidelines on safe drinking was used. In summary, with reference to actual health behaviours, the Stages of Change algorithm was valid for young men and women for diet. physical activity and alcohol drinking. Independent behavioural data were not available for smoking behaviours. Using the algorithm, there were significant associations in men between prccontemplation status for diet and drinking and diet and physical activity, in women between diet and smoking and in both men and women between drinking and smoking. Covariance between precontemplation status for different health behaviours therefore suggests the need for multimodal interventions.     

Predicting the Use of Complementary Medicine: A Test of the Theories of Reasoned Action and Planned Behavior1

The present study employed the theory of reasoned action (TRA) and its extension, the theory of planned behavior (TPB), to investigate the factors underlying intentions and actual use of homeopathy over a 1‐month period. The study was prospective in design; 349 respondents completed a TPB questionnaire during the first phase of data collection, and 139 respondents were contacted (by telephone) in Phase 2 to provide information regarding their use of homeopathy. The findings provided support for the TPB as a predictor of intentions and use of homeopathy, and demonstrated that the model significantly enhanced the predictive utility of the TRA. Attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived control emerged as significant predictors of intention (R²= .49), while intention predicted behavior (R²= .56). In addition, past behavior significantly contributed to the prediction of intention and behavior.     

Alcohol Consumption and the Theory of Planned Behavior: An Examination of the Cognitive Mediation of Past Behaviorid

This study examined the predictive power of the theory of planned behavior (TPB) in explaining alcohol consumption in 3 prospective samples of students ( Ns = 178. 176. and 159). Generally, the TPB performed well. with attitudes, subjective norms and perceived behavioral control (PBC) explaining between 28% and 46% of the variability in intentions. Intentions and PBC explained between 12% and 50% of the variability in behavior. Measures of self-identity as a "drinker" and past behavior contributed to predictions of intentions over and above the contribution of attitudes. subjective norms. and PBC. Measures of past behavior but not self-identity consistently contributed to predictions of behavior over and above the contributions from intentions and PBC. The direct relationship between past behavior and intention and between past behavior and behavior (independent of the TPB variables or self-identity) could not be attributed to common method variance.     

Parental Problem Drinking and Emerging Adult Problem Behavior: The Moderating Role of Parental Support

This study examined the relationship between parental problem drinking (maternal and paternal) and emerging adult problem behaviors (alcohol use, drug use, and antisocial behavior). In addition, the moderating role of parental support (maternal and paternal) was explored. Data were drawn from a nationally representative sample of emerging adults (N?=?600; Mage?=?20.00, SD?=?1.42; 50% women; 62% White). Results from regression analyses of survey data indicated that both maternal problem drinking and maternal support moderated the relationship between paternal problem drinking and emerging adult alcohol use. For drug use, there was a three-way interaction between paternal problem drinking, maternal problem drinking, and maternal support. The relationship between paternal problem drinking and drug use only was significant for those who reported high maternal problem drinking and low maternal support. For antisocial behavior, there were positive relationships between paternal problem drinking and antisocial behavior and between maternal problem drinking and antisocial behavior in contexts of varying levels of parental support. Findings highlight the potential for parental support to both buffer and enhance the adverse influence of parental problem drinking across varied contexts.     

Having Casual Sex: Additive and Interactive Effects of Alcohol and Condom Availability on the Determinants of Intentions

The impact of alcohol, condom availability, and gender on intentions to engage in casual sex and its antecedents was investigated. Students ( N = 384) who were or were not intoxicated with alcohol completed measures based on the theory of planned behavior (TPB) in relation to having casual sex in a scenario. The scenario described sex between 2 individuals not in a relationship and manipulated the consumption of alcohol of the sexual partners and availability of condoms. The data were supportive of the TPB: Intentions were predictable from attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control (PBC). Results also support the inclusion of measures of past behavior and anticipated affective reactions, but not self-identity or moral norms as predictors of intentions. Alcohol in the scenario and condom availability increased intentions to have sex. There were also several interaction effects. Implications for using the TPB to understand sexual behaviors under the influence of alcohol are discussed.     

The Role of Self‐identity in the Theory of Planned Behavior: A Meta‐Analysis

The present study used meta‐analysis to evaluate the role of self‐identity in the theory of planned behavior (TPB). Altogether, 40 independent tests (N = 11607) could be included in the review. A large, sample‐weighted average correlation between self‐identity and behavioral intention was observed (r₊ = .47). Multiple regression analyses showed that self‐identity explained an increment of 6% of the variance in intention after controlling for the TPB components, and explained an increment of 9% of the variance when past behavior and the TPB components were controlled. The influence of self‐identity on behavior was largely mediated by the strength of behavioral intentions. Theoretical implications of the findings are discussed.     

Can personality close the intention-behavior gap for healthy eating? An examination with the HEXACO personality traits

The aim of this study was to investigate the predictive and moderating effects of HEXACO personality factors, in addition to theory of planned behavior (TPB) variables, on fruit and vegetable consumption. American college students (N = 1036) from 24 institutions were administered the TPB, HEXACO and a self-reported fruit and vegetable consumption measure. The TPB predicted 11–17% of variance in fruit and vegetable consumption, with greater variance accounted for in healthy weight compared to overweight individuals. Personality did not significantly improve the prediction of behavior above TPB constructs; however, conscientiousness was a significant incremental predictor of intention in both healthy weight and overweight/obese groups. While support was found for the TPB as an important predictor of fruit and vegetable consumption in students, little support was found for personality factors. Such findings have implications for interventions designed to target students at risk of chronic disease.     

Anticipated emotions and personal experience for predicting behavioral intentions and behavioral expectations

We tested how anticipated emotions interact with personal experience in risk behavior to improve predictions from TPB on behavioral intention (BI) and behavioral expectation (BE) for sex without condom (Study 1) and excessive drinking (Study 2). In the moderate-high experience group, anticipated emotional profiles (AEPs) improve TPB prediction from 28% to 45% in the case of BI and from 19% to 40% in that of BE in relation to sexual risk behavior (Study 1), and from 23% to 36% in the case of BI and from 17% to 31% in that of BE in relation to binge drinking (Study 2). However, in the low-experience group (Study 2) AEPs improve TPB predictions for BI (12% to 34%) but not for BE, showing that in less experienced people BI and BE are not equivalent: anticipated emotions have different relevance in their prediction. These results were replicated using a general negative anticipated emotion index (averaging emotional categories).     

Effects of alcohol,rumination, and gender on the time course of negative affect

This study modelled associations between gender, ruminative cognitive style, alcohol use, and the time course of negative affect over the course of 43,111 random assessments in the natural environment. Participants (N?=?263) completed 49 days of experience sampling over 1.3 years. The data indicated that rumination at baseline was positively associated with alcohol dependence symptoms at baseline as well as higher negative affect over the course of the study. Consistent with negative reinforcement models, drinking served to decrease the persistence of negative affect from moment to moment. However, this ameliorative effect of drinking was evident only among women, suggesting an increased risk for negative reinforcement driven drinking behaviour. In addition, rumination appeared to counteract the desired effects of alcohol on mood among women. This suggests that women who ruminate more may be motivated to consume larger amounts of alcohol to achieve the desired effects. Overall, the results indicate that ruminative cognitive style and the persistence of negative affect from moment to moment may reflect an individual vulnerability for the development of alcohol use disorder especially among women.     

Alcohol use, expectancies, and sexual sensation seeking as correlates of HIV risk behavior in heterosexual young adults.

Most theoretical models of HIV risk behavior have not considered the role of personality factors, and few studies have examined mechanisms accounting for dispositional influences on sexual risk taking. This study elaborated on a conceptual model emphasizing sexual sensation seeking, alcohol expectancies, and drinking before sex as key predictors of HIV risk (S. C. Kalichman, L. Tannenbaum, & D. Nachimson, 1998). Multiple groups structural equation modeling was used to determine whether gender moderated relationships among these variables in a sample of 611 heterosexual, young adult drinkers (49% women, 76% Caucasian, mean age = 25 years). The model provided an excellent fit to the data, and gender differences were not substantiated. Sexual sensation seeking predicted HIV risk directly as well as indirectly via sex-related alcohol expectancies and drinking in sexual contexts. Findings suggest that expectancies and drinking before sex represent proximal mechanisms through which dispositional factors influence sexual risk outcomes. Moreover, these relationships appear to be similar in men and women. Interventions could benefit from targeting alcohol expectancies and drinking before sex in individuals with a dispositional tendency toward sexual risk taking.