“虚概念”的悲剧与概念“态”的建立

“虚概念”是曾经困扰我国逻辑学界的一个问题。前辈们关于虚概念的提出无疑是有功绩的。但这一提法本身不尽科学,最好予以废止。一、就其原定义而言,所谓“无外延或外延为零之概念”,不合逻辑、概念理论体系和客观实际本身。如果承认一个概念,竟然可以没有外延,那么还能称为“概念”吗?而在实践中如果承认这种“畸形概念”存在,又会导致把“共产主义社会”这类概念归入“虚概念”范围。如果不承认其存在,那么“共产主义社会”算“实概念”吗?但外延所指在现实中又不存在,虽然“必然存在”,但毕竟尚未存在。如果释为“真实概念”,是完全正确的。在这里“虚概念”究竟与“实概念”还是与“真实概念”相对呢?始终含混不清。     

有关素描中的"虚实"

对于初学者来说,素描的“虚实”问题是至关重要的,要真正解决这个问题决非易事。总结多年的教学经验与艺术实践,“虚实”归纳起来就是:方实、圆虚;前实、后虚;近实、远虚;转折的地方实、非转折的地方虚;结构的部分实、非结构的部分虚;受光面实、背光面虚。这样虚实相间,画面才有变化。     

“虚概念”研究概述

“虚概念”问题是近几年逻辑界争论意见较多的问题,现将各种不同意见概述于后。一概念有无虚、实之分?“虚概念”是不是概念? 第一种观点认为“虚概念”不是概念,概念无所谓虚实之分。认为“虚概念”不是概念者持两种理由:(1) “概念”一词在逻辑学上有两种不同的含义:第一,它作为理性认识 (思维) 的一种形式,是理性认识的起点和终结;第二,它作为语词的思想内容,是判断的组成部分——主词、谓词等。虚概念中的“概念”属第一种含义,所以虚概念实质上指的是那些不能被称为概念的错误观念;(2) 为了确定一个概念是否是虚概念,重要的先决条件在于必须确定使用概念的论域。有的概念就客观世界的论域来讲是空类,但就另外的论域,比如人们的主观世界的论域来讲,并不都是空类。那些在确定     

“虚”与“实”的审美意蕴——中国画虚实相生的艺术手法解读

中国传统绘画讲究虚实相生的艺术手法,中国画意境的传达有赖于画中虚实的表现,而画中的“虚实”是画家化自然之境这胸中之意的深刻体悟的结果,是画家主观精神境界和艺术修养的体现。运实于虚,无虚非实,“虚实相生,无画处皆成妙境”,虚中有实、实中有虚的表现手法体现了中国传统绘画美学的一大特色。     

科学语义学的建立

“语义学”一词此处是在一个较窄的意义上使用的。我们所理解的语义学是关于这样一些概念的全部思考,粗略地讲,这些概念表达一个语言的表达式和这些表达式所指称的对象与事态之间的某种关系。作为典型的语义概念我们可以举“指称”、“满足”和“定义”的概念为例,它们出现于下述陈述之中,如:     

油画画面中的虚实与节奏感浅析

通过对东西方传统艺术的对比,以及对不同时期的大师对油画虚实的处理方法的研究,对油画画面中的虚实做了大致的分析,并由此归纳出任何杰出的画作均是巧运虚实的结果。虚实来自于对客观物象的感受和个人情感的融合,是画家的个人情感在画面上的流露。虚不代表飘,实不代表僵,虚中见实,实中有虚,虚实相生。无论倾向画实还是倾向画虚,虚与实这对矛盾都必然要有机地结合。     

选择性仅为反映的一种特性

选择论者否定“认识是人脑对客观世界的反映”这一定义。这实质上是由于他们不理解反映概念具有多层次和多水平的含义,并包含着作为过程的发展的思想,而把反映论中的反映概念理解为标志最低水平的物理学术语,并把人脑理解为无生命的实体;同时也是由于仅从字面上去理解映象、复写、     

谈谈词项的内涵和外延

内涵和外延,是语义学中两个非常重要的概念。一般逻辑教材中谈到内涵和外延问题,都应划归语义学的范围。普通逻辑认为,概念具有内涵和外延两个方面。概念的内涵就是概念所反映的对象的特有属性,概     

言语中的虚实关系

(一) 言语中的同义关系有多种,虚实关系是其中一种。虚即虚式,实即实式,虚与实是语言表达的不同方式。言语的基本单位是句子,句子由词语构成,词语都有一定的语义。言语中句子所表示的意思同词语固有的语义相同,这是实式;句子所表示的意思与词语固有的语义不同或不完全相同,则是虚式。超句单位是句子的扩大,即由若干句子组成,情形与句子相同。     

价值之"是":价值本质研究的一个方向

一以往关于价值本质的讨论 ,重在追究价值是什么 ,即给出代表价值的那个宾词 ,那个述语 ,那个“能指”的对应物———“所指” ,找出价值的自在规定性。主观论者试图把这个“所指”归结为情感、欲望、快乐与兴趣的投射等 ,总之是某种主观的或心理的东西 ;客观论者试图把它说成是客体固有的某种成分、属性。哲学家们的具体解释虽然差异很大 ,但基本思路是一致的 :无视主客体复杂的相互作用关系 ,把价值当作某种单纯的、独立存在的质 ,一个具体实在的“什么”。这两种理解的错误是显而易见的 ,学界已做了大量批评 ,本文不必赘述。马克斯·舍勒…     

Children's understandings of the attributes of life

Previous investigations of children's understandings of the life concept have focused on their classifications of the life status of familiar objects. In this study, we attempted to examine more directly the processes by which children infer life status by examining their reasoning about unfamiliar objects. In Experiment 1, 4- to 11-year-olds and adults were asked to name attributes of living things to establish which attributes they associated most closely with life. Children age 7 and younger most often named attributes true only of animals but not of plants; older children more often named attributes true of both animals and plants. However, movement was the single attribute cited most frequently by children of all ages tested. In Experiment 2, 4- to 11-year-olds and adults were presented information about attributes of imaginary objects on a distant planet and were asked to infer if those objects were alive. Again, young children relied relatively heavily on qualities true only of animals but not of plants, whereas older children relied more on attributes true of both plants and animals. Also as before, movement was viewed as indicative of life at all ages tested. In Experiment 3, we examined the hypothesis that children discriminate among different types of motion and that the types of motion they associate with life are in fact typical of living things. Children ranging from age 5 through 11 were found to discriminate among different types of motion and to infer that objects were alive only when they showed the types of motion typical of living beings. The results of Experiment 3 allowed interpretation of seemingly conflicting results that have arisen in previous studies, as well as in Experiments 1 and 2 of the present study.     

History,knowledge, and essence in the early Marx

A careful study of the concept of essence which is found in Marx's early writings will show that his theory of knowledge does not involve, as is often claimed, the acceptance of an unknown thing-in-itself and does not imply that we can only know objects as they have been constituted for-us. We can know things as they are in-themselves. To show this will also require that we recognize and explain how the early Marx can hold that the object of knowledge is both constituted and that it reflects or copies things as they are in-themselves.     

Selective storage and maintenance of an object’s features in visual working memory

It has been shown that we have a highly capacity-limited representational space with which to store objects in visual working memory. However, most objects are composed of multiple feature attributes, and it is unknown whether observers can voluntarily store a single attribute of an object without necessarily storing all of its remaining features. In this study, we used a masking paradigm to measure the efficiency of encoding, and neurophysiological recordings to directly measure visual working memory maintenance while subjects viewed multifeature objects and were required to remember only a single feature or all of the features of the objects. We found that measures of both encoding and maintenance varied systematically as a function of which object features were task relevant. These experiments show that individuals can control which features of an object are selectively stored in working memory.     

The development of biological knowledge: A multi-national study

This study was designed to differentiate between universal and culturally specific aspects of children's biological understanding. Kindergartners, second graders, and fourth graders from Israel, Japan, and the United States were asked whether people, other animals, plants, and inanimate objects possessed each of 16 attributes. The attributes included life, unobservable attributes of animals, sensory capacities, and attributes of all living things. The results indicated that children of all three ages in all three countries knew that people, other animals, plants, and inanimate entities were different types of things, with different properties. Children in all cultures were extremely accurate regarding properties of humans, somewhat less accurate regarding properties of other animals and inanimate entities, and least accurate regarding properties of plants. As predicted from cultural analyses, Israeli children were the most likely to fail to attribute to plants qualities that are shared by all living things. Also as predicted, Japanese children were the most likely to attribute to inanimate entities attributes possessed only by living things. In contrast to many previous findings, U.S. children in the study presented here displayed more accurate scientific knowledge than age peers in Japan or Israel. The results were analyzed in terms of how cultural beliefs and linguistic categories affect knowledge acquisition processes and scientific understandings.     

A Comparison of Different Methods for the Elicitation of Attribute Weights: Structural Modeling,Process Tracing,and Self-Reports

This study investigates whether structural modeling, process tracing, and self-reports are able to provide similar information about attribute weights in multiattribute evaluation processes. In three experiments subjects had to evaluate a large number of profiles of fictitious persons described on a number of attributes. The experiments differed in type of judgment task, type of subjects, and number of attributes. Subject attribute weights were derived in all cases by fitting a statistical model (statistical weights), by analyzing verbal protocols (verbal protocol weights), and by directly asking the subject how important the attributes are for the judgments (subjective weights). Correspondence between the three sets of weights is examined in two ways: by computing the correlation between three sets of weights and by calculating how adequately the different sets of weights, applied in a linear model, can predict the subject′s judgments. The first method appears to be inappropriate for investigating correspondence. The correlations are rather unstable because of the small number of attributes, and apart from that, they tend to underestimate real correspondence when the weights in the respective sets are approximately equal. The second method shows that the three sets of weights are about equally adequate in predicting the actual subject judgments. It is concluded that this method convincingly demonstrates that the three different ways of eliciting attribute weights yield similar results.     

Conceptualization of perceptual attributes: a special case for color?

Young children experience difficulties establishing conceptual representations of color compared with everyday objects. We argue that comparing the development of color cognition to that of familiar objects is inappropriate since color is a perceptual attribute that can be abstracted from an object and by itself lacks functional significance. Instead, we compared the recognition, perceptual saliency, and naming of color to that of three other perceptual object attributes (motion, form, and size) in 47 children aged 2 to 5 years as a function of language age. Results revealed that, although color was perceptually salient relative to the other visual attributes, no selective impairment to color cognition (recognition and naming) was found relative to the three other visual attributes tested. Thus, when the appropriate comparisons are made, we find no special delay in the development of color conceptualization. Furthermore, the striking disparity between perceptual saliency and cognition of color in our youngest age groups suggests that perceptual saliency has little influence on the conceptual development of color.     

Forms, uses and functions of children's favourite objects

In this study, the notion of a favourite object is used as a heuristic concept for things that children are occupied with and absorbed by. According to earlier studies, favourite objects can be grouped into four categories: forerunners of transitional objects, primary and secondary transitional objects, and favourite toys. This initial classification was compared to results of cluster analyses of characteristics of favourite objects among 32 preschool and 30 primary school children, corroborating the initial classification and specifying the typology. The distribution of types of objects was different for the two groups of children, but was not dependent on age within groups or, for the preschool children, on mental development. These results indicate that changes of favourite objects with mental maturation are slow.
The softness of the material of primary and secondary transitional objects and the preference for objects that could be kept close to the body suggest that the comforting character of these favourite objects has its root in the child's self-soothing actions with the object.     

Object attention revisited: identifying mechanisms and boundary conditions

Multiple attributes of a visual array are often more efficiently processed when they are attributes of a single object than when they are attributes of different objects—a pattern reflecting the limitations of object attention. This study used psychophysical methods to evaluate the object attention limitations in the report of attributes (orientation and phase) computed early in visual analysis for spatially separated objects. These limitations had large effects on dual-object report thresholds when different judgments were required for the two objects (orientation for one object and phase for the other), but the effects were small or nonexistent when the same judgment was made about both objects. Judgment consistency reduced or eliminated the expression of object attention deficits. Thus, the deficits in dual-object report reflect both division of attention over objects and the calculation of independent reference or judgment operations. Dual-object deficits, when they occurred, were substantial in displays with external noise masks. Smaller effects were observed in clear displays, even when difficulty was equated by stimulus contrast. Thus, the primary consequence of object attention is the exclusion of external noise, or mask suppression, and enhancement of the stimulus in clear displays is a secondary consequence.     

Can 9.5-month-old infants attribute to an agent a disposition to perform a particular action on objects?

The present research examined whether 9.5-month-old infants can attribute to an agent a disposition to perform a particular action on objects, and can then use this disposition to predict which of two new objects - one that can be used to perform the action and one that cannot - the agent is likely to reach for next. The infants first received familiarization trials in which they watched an agent slide either three (Experiments 1 and 3) or six (Experiment 2) different objects forward and backward on an apparatus floor. During test, the infants saw two new identical objects placed side by side: one stood inside a short frame that left little room for sliding, and the other stood inside a longer frame that left ample room for sliding. The infants who saw the agent slide six different objects attributed to her a disposition to slide objects: they expected her to select the "slidable" as opposed to the "unslidable" test object, and they looked reliably longer when she did not. In contrast, the infants who saw the agent slide only three different objects looked about equally when she selected either test object. These results add to recent evidence that infants in the first year of life can attribute dispositions to agents, and can use these dispositions to help predict agents' actions in new contexts.