Sexual orientation and childhood gender nonconformity: evidence from home videos

Homosexual adults tend to be more gender nonconforming than heterosexual adults in some of their behaviors, feelings, and interests. Retrospective studies have also shown large differences in childhood gender nonconformity, but these studies have been criticized for possible memory biases. The authors studied an indicator of childhood gender nonconformity not subject to such biases: childhood home videos. They recruited homosexual and heterosexual men and women (targets) with videos from their childhood and subsequently asked heterosexual and homosexual raters to judge the gender nonconformity of the targets from both the childhood videos and adult videos made for the study. Prehomosexual children were judged more gender nonconforming, on average, than preheterosexual children, and this pattern obtained for both men and women. This difference emerged early, carried into adulthood, and was consistent with self-report. In addition, targets who were more gender nonconforming tended to recall more childhood rejection.     

Taxometric analyses of sexual orientation and gender identity

Taxa are nonarbitrary classes whose existence is an empirical question and not a matter of mere semantic convenience. Taxometric procedures detect whether numerical relations between purported indicators of conjectured taxa bear the hallmarks of true taxa. On the basis of theoretical considerations, the current study tested whether taxa underlie sexual orientation and related measures of gender identity. Two taxometric procedures, maximum covariance, making hits maximum (MAXCOV) and mean above minus below a cut (MAMBAC), were applied to Kinsey Scales and measures of childhood gender nonconformity and adult gender identity in a sample of nearly 5,000 members of the Australian Twin Registry. Results suggest that latent taxa underlie these measures. About 12-15% of men and 5-10% of women belong to latent taxa associated with homosexual preference. These percentages are greater than those of individuals who report homosexual preference, however, and hence it appears that an appreciable proportion of individuals in these taxa have heterosexual preference. An understanding of the origins of these latent taxa may be important to understanding the development of sexual orientation and gender identity.     

The Relation Between Childhood Gender Nonconformity and Adult Masculinity–Femininity and Anxiety in Heterosexual and Homosexual Men and Women

Recalled childhood gender nonconformity (CGN) and adult traits—e.g., masculinity–femininity of occupational preferences (MF-Occ), self-ascribed masculinity–femininity (Self-MF), self-reported anxiety—were assessed in an ethnically diverse US convenience sample of California college students and gay pride attendees, including 238 heterosexual men, 127 gay men, 343 heterosexual women, and 197 lesbian women. CGN showed large heterosexual–homosexual and gender differences, with homosexual individuals higher than heterosexual individuals and women higher than men. CGN was significantly associated with both men’s and women’s MF-Occ and Self-MF, both within and across sexual orientations. CGN was associated with self-reported anxiety for men but not for women, a finding true for both heterosexual and gay men, suggesting that CGN had a more negative impact on men than women.     

The Structure of Sexual Orientation and its Relation to Masculinity,Femininity, and Gender Diagnosticity: Different for Men and Women

Three hundred ninety-four college students (148 men and 246 women; 42% White, 25% Hispanic, and 23% Asian) were assessed on masculine instrumentality (M), feminine expressiveness (F), gender diagnosticity (GD), and the Big Five personality traits (Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Neuroticism, and Openness). Participants completed a 16-item sexual behavior and attitude questionnaire that asked about their attraction to men, their attraction to women, their degree of emotional commitment in sexual relationships, their level of sex drive, and their interest in visual sexual stimuli and fantasy. Factor analysis of sexual behavior and attitude items for men showed four factors: Bipolar Sexual Orientation, Emotional Commitment, Sex Drive, and Sexual Fantasy. Factor analysis of items for women showed four somewhat different factors: Homosexuality, Heterosexuality, Emotional Commitment, and Sex Drive. Thus, sexual orientation proved to be bipolar for men, but two-dimensional for women. For men, Sexual Orientation correlated most strongly with GD, less with M, and not at all with F. Among women, there were few significant correlations between personality measures and Homosexuality or Heterosexuality.     

A follow-up study of girls with gender identity disorder

This study provided information on the natural histories of 25 girls with gender identity disorder (GID). Standardized assessment data in childhood (mean age, 8.88 years; range, 3-12 years) and at follow-up (mean age, 23.24 years; range, 15-36 years) were used to evaluate gender identity and sexual orientation. At the assessment in childhood, 60% of the girls met the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders criteria for GID, and 40% were subthreshold for the diagnosis. At follow-up, 3 participants (12%) were judged to have GID or gender dysphoria. Regarding sexual orientation, 8 participants (32%) were classified as bisexual/homosexual in fantasy, and 6 (24%) were classified as bisexual/homosexual in behavior. The remaining participants were classified as either heterosexual or asexual. The rates of GID persistence and bisexual/homosexual sexual orientation were substantially higher than base rates in the general female population derived from epidemiological or survey studies. There was some evidence of a "dosage" effect, with girls who were more cross-sex typed in their childhood behavior more likely to be gender dysphoric at follow-up and more likely to have been classified as bisexual/homosexual in behavior (but not in fantasy).     

Effects of Victim Gender and Sexuality on Attributions of Blame to Rape Victims

Previous research suggests that homosexual male rape victims receive more blame than heterosexual victims. In this study, we examined effects of victim gender and sexuality on judgments of victims of stranger rape by a male perpetrator. Participants read a rape vignette in which victim gender and sexuality varied, and then rated the amount of blame they attributed to the perpetrator and victim. Victims were attributed more blame if their sexual orientation suggested potential attraction to the perpetrator: gay men and heterosexual women received more blame than did lesbians and heterosexual men. Further, homophobic attitudes toward gay male victims increased the blame attributed to them: perpetrators of rape of gay men were seen as least responsible for their actions, and the character of gay male victims was seen to be a stronger contributory factor than it was for other victims.     

IS SEXUAL ORIENTATION A MATTER OF CHOICE?

Ninety women in lesbian and heterosexual couples were compared on relationship values, views of same-gender and cross-gender intimate relationships, and perceived choice of sexual orientation. Both groups reported similar values, levels of self-esteem, and capacity for intimacy. The majority in both groups described their relationships with women as more emotionally and intellectually intimate than those with men. A majority of women in lesbian couples (58%) and a third of women in heterosexual couples reported choosing the orientation of their current sexual relationship. Women with male partners did not perceive major differences between homosexual and heterosexual relationships, citing sexual attraction as the primary reason they chose a male partner. In contrast, many women with female partners characterized lesbian relationships as more intimate and equal, and less gender-role stereotyped, frequently citing these characteristics, along with sexual attraction, as reasons for their relationship preference.     

TOWARD AN UNDERSTANDING OF GENDER DIFFERENCES IN INFERRING SEXUAL INTEREST

Research has shown that, after brief opposite-gender interactions, men perceive women more sexually than women perceive men (e.g., Abbey, 1982 ). This study examined interpersonal perceptions following dyadic cross-gender interactions between unacquainted individuals. Of particular concern were perceptions of sexual traits, interaction qualities, and physical attractiveness. The influence of being gender schematic on sexual judgments was examined. The results provide further support for Abbey's finding that men oversexualize women following brief interactions but failed to support the hypothesized gender schema effects. Additional analyses suggest the presence of another gender difference in judging attraction. Women who rated their partners as physically attractive also attributed more positive qualities to their partner and the interaction. By contrast, men's ratings of women revealed more limited associations with perceived physical attractiveness. Results are discussed in terms of gender differences in judging sexual attraction, the correlates of physical attractiveness, and continuing efforts to explain oversexualization.     

Gender and sexual orientation differences in sexual response to sexual activities versus gender of actors in sexual films

In this study, the authors investigated the hypothesis that women's sexual orientation and sexual responses in the laboratory correlate less highly than do men's because women respond primarily to the sexual activities performed by actors, whereas men respond primarily to the gender of the actors. The participants were 20 homosexual women, 27 heterosexual women, 17 homosexual men, and 27 heterosexual men. The videotaped stimuli included men and women engaging in same-sex intercourse, solitary masturbation, or nude exercise (no sexual activity); human male-female copulation; and animal (bonobo chimpanzee or Pan paniscus) copulation. Genital and subjective sexual arousal were continuously recorded. The genital responses of both sexes were weakest to nude exercise and strongest to intercourse. As predicted, however, actor gender was more important for men than for women, and the level of sexual activity was more important for women than for men. Consistent with this result, women responded genitally to bonobo copulation, whereas men did not. An unexpected result was that homosexual women responded more to nude female targets exercising and masturbating than to nude male targets, whereas heterosexual women responded about the same to both sexes at each activity level.     

The Relationship Between Sexual Orientation and Gender Identification Among Males in a Cross-Cultural Analysis in Brazil, Turkey and Thailand

This study measures and compares the level of congruency between male sexual orientation and gender identification using the Kinsey Scale in three cultures: Brazil (Florianópolis), Turkey (Istanbul) and Thailand (Bangkok) with social class as the control mechanism. Quantitative techniques are utilized in comparing the self-evaluation of sexual orientation and gender identification among young men with same-sex, opposite-sex and both-sex orientations or behaviors. Results: In all three cultures, homosexuals were much more likely than bisexuals or heterosexuals to enjoy receiving anal sex and performing fellatio. Bisexual and heterosexual men, as expected, reported enjoying vaginal penetration and cunnilingus more than homosexual men. Same-sex oriented male self-evaluations of homosexual orientation and feminine gender identification scored similarly on the Kinsey Scale (0–6) in all three countries. These data support the traditional identity trichotomy used in the field: homosexuality, bisexuality and heterosexuality. When controlling for nationality only small differences were found amongst the participants; however, social class or level of education did have a significant effect on the relationship between self-evaluation of sexual orientation and gender identification.     

Role of Sexual Orientation and Gender-Related Traits in Disordered Eating

This study was designed to examine the role of both sexual orientation and gender-related personality traits in disordered eating attitudes and behavior, including body dissatisfaction. Self-report measures assessing negative and positive gender traits,body dissatisfaction, drive for thinness, dietary restraint, and bulimic symptoms were administered to 266 participants (64 lesbians, 73 heterosexual women, 69 gay men, and 60 heterosexual men; 85% Anglo-Australian Caucasians, 15% Caucasians from Non-English-speaking backgrounds). Consistent with previous research, gay men scored significantly higher than heterosexual men on body dissatisfaction and dietary restraint, whereas lesbians scored significantly lower in comparison to the heterosexual women on body dissatisfaction, drive for thinness, dietary restraint, and bulimia. For men, the additional amount of variance accounted by the gender traits was significantly higher than that accounted for by sexual orientation. For the women, the gender traits also accounted for an additional significant amount of variance; however, overall the amount of variance accounted for by sexual orientation was greater. However, for both men and women, irrespective of their sexual orientation, it was higher scores on negative femininity that predicted higher levels of disordered eating. These results are consistent with previous studies that have found support for the femininity hypothesis in disordered eating.     

Sexual and romantic jealousy in heterosexual and homosexual adults

Several theorists have claimed that men are innately more upset by a mate's sexual infidelity and women are more upset by a mate's emotional infidelity because the sexes faced different adaptive problems (for men, cuckoldry; for women, losing a mate's resources). The present work examined this theory of jealousy as a specific innate module in 196 adult men and women of homosexual and heterosexual orientations. As in previous work, heterosexuals' responses to a forced-choice question about hypothetical infidelity yielded a gender difference. However, no gender differences were found when participants recalled personal experiences with a mate's actual infidelity. Men and women, regardless of sexual orientation, on average focused more on a mate's emotional infidelity than on a mate's sexual infidelity. Responses to hypothetical infidelity were uncorrelated with reactions to actual infidelity. This finding casts doubt on the validity of the hypothetical measures used in previous research.     

Sexual orientation and handedness in men and women: a meta-analysis

Recent findings suggest that sexual orientation has an early neurodevelopmental basis. Handedness, a behavioral marker of early neurodevelopment, has been associated with sexual orientation in some studies but not in others. The authors conducted a meta-analysis of 20 studies that compared the rates of non-right-handedness in 6,987 homosexual (6,182 men and 805 women) and 16,423 heterosexual (14,808 men and 1,615 women) participants. Homosexual participants had 39% greater odds of being non-right-handed. The corresponding values for homosexual men (20 contrasts) and women (9 contrasts) were 34% and 91%, respectively. The results support the notion that sexual orientation in some men and women has an early neurodevelopmental basis, but the factors responsible for the handedness-sexual orientation association require elucidation. The authors discuss 3 possibilities: cerebral laterality and prenatal exposure to sex hormones, maternal immunological reactions to the fetus, and developmental instability.     

Number of older brothers and sexual orientation: new tests and the attraction/behavior distinction in two national probability samples

The extent to which number of older brothers or "fraternal birth order" predicted the 2 main components that researchers have traditionally used to conceptualize sexual orientation-that is, psychological attraction and sexual behavior-was examined in 2 recent national probability samples. In both studies, fraternal birth order predicted same-sex attraction in men, with each additional older brother increasing the odds of homosexual attraction by an average of 38%. Results also indicated that the fraternal birth order/same-sex attraction relationship in men was independent of sexual behavior, including early same-sex behavior. No sibling characteristics predicted sexual orientation in women. Results suggest experience-based theories (e.g., early same-sex play) of the fraternal birth order effect in men are unlikely to be correct.     

Sex role self schema and psychological adjustment in coupled homosexual and heterosexual men and women

This study examined the relation between dimensions of sex role self schema (assessed by four factor scores of the Bem Sex Role Inventory: Instrumentality, Expressiveness, Autonomy, and Masculinity-Femininity) and psychological adjustment (assessed by the Symptom Checklist-90-R) in 366 homosexuals (230 males and 136 females) and 241 heterosexuals (124 males and 117 females). All subjects were in a cohabitating relationship. Homosexuals and heterosexuals did not differ in psychological adjustment, but men were found to be more distressed by paranoid symptoms than women. Dimensions of sex role self schema varied by an interaction between gender and sexual orientation. Gender differences on Instrumentality, Expressiveness, and Masculinity-Femininity were more pronounced for heterosexuals than for homosexuals. Further, homosexual women were more Instrumental than heterosexual women, while homosexual and heterosexual men were equivalent; homosexual men were more Expressive than heterosexual men, while homosexual and heterosexual women were equivalent; and the discrepancy between homosexual and heterosexual women's Masculinity-Femininity score was greater than that between homosexual and heterosexual men. Hierarchical regression analyses indicated that only education and the Autonomy dimension of sex role self scheme were the best nonredundant predictors of psychological adjustment, although the relations were weak. Findings are discussed in terms of current theory and research on sex role self schemas.     

Courtship in the personals column: The influence of gender and sexual orientation

Eight hundred personal advertisements were analyzed, representing an equal sampling of male and female homosexual and heterosexual advertisers on the East and West Coast of the United States. In general, men were more concerned with physical characteristics, while women stressed psychological factors. Homosexuals were more concerned with sexuality, while heterosexuals specified a broader range of characteristics. Significant interactions between gender and sexual orientation point to the importance of sex-role expectations in the heterosexual context and suggest substantial differences between males and females who choose homosexuality.     

Childhood Trauma, Adult Sexual Assault, and Adult Gender Expression among Lesbian and Bisexual Women

Several studies have demonstrated that lesbian and bisexual women are more likely than heterosexual women to report childhood abuse and adult sexual assault. It is unknown, however, which sexual minority women are most likely to experience such abuse. We recruited adult sexual minority women living in the US through electronic fliers sent to listservs and website groups inviting them to complete an online survey (N?=?1,243). We examined differences in both childhood abuse and adult sexual assault by women’s current gender identity (i.e., butch, femme, androgynous, or other) and a continuous measure of gender expression (from butch/masculine to femme/feminine), adjusting for sexual orientation identity, age, education, and income. Results indicated that a more butch/masculine current self-assessment of gender expression, but not gender identity, was associated with more overall reported childhood trauma. Although one aspect of gender expression, a more butch/masculine gender role, was associated with adult sexual assault, feminine appearance and a femme gender identity also significantly predicted adult sexual assault. These findings highlight the significance of gender identity and expression in identifying women at greater risk for various abuse experiences.     

Going along versus going alone: when fundamental motives facilitate strategic (non)conformity

Three experiments examined how 2 fundamental social motives--self-protection and mate attraction--influenced conformity. A self-protective goal increased conformity for both men and women. In contrast, the effects of a romantic goal depended on sex, causing women to conform more to others' preferences while engendering nonconformity in men. Men motivated to attract a mate were particularly likely to nonconform when (a) nonconformity made them unique (but not merely a member of a small minority) and when (b) the topic was subjective versus objective, meaning that nonconformists could not be revealed to be incorrect. These findings fit with a functional evolutionary model of motivation and behavior, and they indicate that fundamental motives such as self-protection and mate attraction can stimulate specific forms of conformity or nonconformity for strategic self-presentation.     

Traditional vs. nontraditional women and men's perceptions of the personalities and physiques of ideal women and men

Traditional and nontraditional women and men's perceptions of ideal people, in terms of both traits and physiques, were assessed using 80 male and 80 female Caucasian undergraduates as study participants. The data indicated that traditional women and men perceived the ideal male as mesomorphic and as having more instrumental than expressive traits. Nontraditional women and men also favored a mesomorphic physique for the ideal male, but they differed from traditionals in that they saw this mesomorphic male as being androgynous in regard to traits. Concerning the ideal female, traditional and nontraditional women and men preferred an androgynous physique, but they differed in their perceptions of the ideal personality for a woman. Traditional women and men perceived their ideal women as having more expressive than instrumental traits, whereas nontraditional women and men saw their ideal women as being androgynous in regard to traits. The results are discussed within the framework of Bem's gender schema and enculturated lens theories.     

Oedipus or Orestes? Homosexual men, their mothers, and other women revisited.

The psychodynamic relationship between homosexual sons, their mothers, and other women in their lives is reexamined. The limitations of earlier writings on the topic are discussed, and a reconceptualized psychoanalytic model is presented for understanding some aspects of the relationships between these sons and their mothers during childhood. In particular, the oedipal stage of development is reformulated to coincide with the sexual orientation of the developing boy. This stage is then examined in the context of the discordant psychosocial environment in which it is often played out. The usefulness of this construct for understanding aspects of the psychosocial development of gay men throughout their lives, particularly their relationships with women, is explored through the examination of clinical data from a number of sources. Finally, the implications of this model for psychotherapeutic endeavors with homosexual men are considered.