The relationship between mental toughness and cognitive control: Evidence from the item‐method directed forgetting task

Previous research by the authors found that mental toughness, as measured by the Mental Toughness Questionnaire 48 (MTQ48; Clough, P.J., Earle, K., & Sewell, D. [2002]. Mental toughness: the concept and its measurement. In I. Cockerill (Ed.), Solutions in sport psychology [pp. 32–43]. London: Thomson Publishing), was significantly associated with performance on the list‐method directed forgetting task. The current study extends this finding to the item‐method directed forgetting task in which the instruction to Remember or Forget is given after each item in the study list. A significant positive association was found between the correct recognition of Remember words and the emotional control subscale of the MTQ48. No significant associations were observed with other measures of mental toughness or personality. The findings are discussed in terms of the relationship between mental toughness and cognitive control.     

Factorial validity of the Mental Toughness Questionnaire-48

The purpose of this study was to assess the factorial validity of the Mental Toughness Questionnaire-48 (Clough, Earle, & Sewell, 2002). In total, 8207 participants (male n = 4019, female n = 3922, unspecified = 266) aged between 16 and 68 years (M = 37.00, SD = 12.09) completed the MTQ48. Model fit was assessed using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and exploratory structural equation modeling, in addition to the robust maximum likelihood estimator. Overall, our results support the factorial validity of the MTQ48 and indicate that the MTQ48 is a robust psychometric measure of mental toughness. Along with previous data, which supports the internal validity of the MTQ48 in addition to results of this study, it would appear that the MTQ48 is an acceptable method of assessing mental toughness.     

Development and Validation of a Military Training Mental Toughness Inventory

Three studies were conducted to develop and validate a mental toughness instrument for use in military training environments. Study 1 (n = 435) focused on item generation and testing the structural integrity of the Military Training Mental Toughness Inventory (MTMTI). The measure assessed ability to maintain optimal performance under pressure from a range of different stressors experienced by recruits during infantry basic training. Study 2 (n = 104) examined the concurrent validity, predictive validity, and test–retest reliability of the measure. Study 3 (n = 106) confirmed the predictive validity of the measure with a sample of more specialized infantry recruits. Overall, the military training mental toughness inventory demonstrated sound psychometric properties and structural validity. Furthermore, it was found to possess good test–retest reliability, concurrent validity, and predicted performance in 2 different training contexts with 2 separate samples.     

Development and preliminary validation of a mental toughness inventory for Australian football

ObjectivesThis paper describes the development and preliminary evaluation of the Australian football Mental Toughness Inventory (AfMTI).MethodsConfirmatory and exploratory factor analyses were employed to explore the factor structure of a pool of items designed to capture the key components of mental toughness in Australian football [Gucciardi, D.F., Gordon, S., & Dimmock, J.A. (2008). Towards an understanding of mental toughness in Australian football. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 20, 261–281.] Correlations between the four-factor inventory and flow, resilience, and social desirability were examined. The discriminant validity of the inventory was also assessed. Multisource ratings (self, parent, and coach) of the AfMTI were examined in experiment two.ResultsThe AfMTI is a 24-item scale that measures four components of mental toughness in Australian football – thrive through challenge, sport awareness, tough attitude, and desire success. It was shown to have adequate internal reliability estimates across different raters (α = .70–.89). Moderate correlations with flow and resilience were evidenced, while minimal correlations existed with social desirability. Multisource data were somewhat equivocal; correlational data suggested a disagreement between raters, whereas an ANOVA suggested agreement between raters.ConclusionsPreliminary data on the factor structure, internal reliability, and construct validity of the AfMTI were encouraging. However, the factor structure, reliability, and validity of the AfMTI must be verified through further psychometric examinations before it can be considered a useful tool for measuring mental toughness in Australian football.     

What is the size of the relationship between global mental toughness and youth experiences?

Youth experiences are a core requirement for components of positive youth development and may be associated with an athlete’s mental toughness. The purposes of this study were to examine the relationship between mental toughness and youth experiences. Two hundred and ninety nine athletes (M_age 19.48 years, SD 1.30) completed the Sport Mental Toughness Questionnaire and Youth Experiences Survey. We then conducted a standard multiple regression on the data. R for regression was significantly different from zero, F(6, 292) = 8.106, p = .0001, with R² at .14. Altogether, 14% (13% adjusted) of the variance in mental toughness was accounted for by youth experiences. These results reveal that initiative experiences have the strongest relationship with mental toughness; however, youth experiences may not be as important as previous studies suggest.     

Genetic associations with personality and mental toughness profiles of English academy football players: An exploratory study

Psychological characteristics influence the performance of youth football players and are significant predictors of development and success at adulthood. Although genetic factors may explain a considerable portion of inter-individual differences in psychological traits, psychogenetic research in football is scarce. As such, the purpose of this study was to examine the association of ten single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) with personality and mental toughness profiles of academy football players. Seventy-three male under-12 to under-18 football players from a Category 3 English academy were genotyped for ten SNPs. Personality and mental toughness were assessed using a 50-item IPIP Big Five personality traits questionnaire and the Mental Toughness Index, respectively. Simple linear regression was used to analyse individual SNP associations with personality dimensions and mental toughness, whereas both unweighted and weighted total genotype scores (TGSs; TWGSs) were computed to measure the combined influence of all SNPs. There was a significant association between DRD3 (rs167771) and agreeableness (p = .043), where A/A homozygotes scored higher than G allele carriers. TGSs and/or TWGSs were significantly correlated with mental toughness and each personality dimension except openness, explaining between 3 and 17% of the variance. The results of this study suggest psychological characteristics of youth football players are partly determined by genetic factors.     

Psychological characteristics in women football players: Skills,mental toughness,and anxiety

Women's football has been far less studied than men's. This work's objectives were to: (1) analyze the differences in psychological skills, mental toughness (MT), and anxiety in women football players according to their level (national team, first division, and second division); and (2) predict those three levels (using a multivariate model) according to the players’ psychological skills, mental toughness, and anxiety. One hundred and forty‐two Icelandic women football players (23.5 ± 3.5 years) participated in the study. They were classified into three groups according to their level: national team, and first and second divisions. Three questionnaires were used: the Test of Performance Strategies Questionnaire, the Sport Mental Toughness Questionnaire, and the Sport Anxiety Scale‐2 questionnaire. A one‐way ANOVA with Bonferroni post hoc correction was used to examine differences between teams. Applying a classification tree analysis, the participants were classified into three groups according to their level. There were few differences between the three groups in psychological skills, but in mental toughness and anxiety the national team had the highest and lowest values respectively, and the first and second division players differed in relaxation in competition (TOPS), total score and confidence (SMTQ), and worry (SAS‐2). The classification tree correctly classified 54.9% of the sample with the variables total score (SMTQ) and activation in practice (TOPS). Therefore, given the relevance that psychological attributes appear to have for women football players’ performance, it would seem indispensable to incorporate the figure of the sports psychologist into national and club teams.     

The relationship between mental toughness and subjective mental illness recovery

Recently there has been an increasing interest in subjective mental illness recovery, and it has been recognised that there is an important role for characteristics such as self-efficacy and locus of control. Mental toughness describes a set of characteristics important for dealing with stress and pressure, and is comprised of challenge, commitment, control of emotion, control of life, confidence in abilities, and interpersonal confidence. The current study explored relationships between mental toughness and subjective mental illness recovery. Seventy-seven participants (nineteen males and fifty-eight females, the majority of which were young adults aged 18–21 years) who had previously recovered from, or were currently recovering from a mental illness (self-reported) completed questionnaire measures of mental toughness and subjective mental illness recovery. Mental toughness had a positive significant relationship to recovery, with particular roles for commitment and confidence in abilities. The findings are discussed in terms of implications for recovery-oriented practice, intervention, and measurement. Further research should examine the role of mental toughness in different aspects of subjective recovery, and also explore relationships with objective measures of recovery.     

Examining the Relationship Between Mental Toughness and Imagery Use

Mental toughness is an important characteristic contributing to athletic excellence (Jones, Hanton, & Connaughton, 2007), yet little quantitative research has examined how psychological skills such as imagery contribute to its development. The present study investigated the relationship between mental toughness with imagery in a sample of varsity athletes (N = 151, M_age = 20.70). Hierarchical multiple regression analyses revealed that imagery use significantly predicted mental toughness. Specifically, motivational general-mastery imagery emerged as the strongest individual predictor for all dimensions of mental toughness (β = .45-.53), thus, providing support for imagery use as a potential strategy for developing or enhancing mental toughness in athletes.     

Convergent Validity of the Early Memory Index in Two Primary Care Samples

Karliner, Westrich, Shedler, and Mayman (1996) developed the Early Memory Index (EMI) to assess mental health, narrative coherence, and traumatic experiences in reports of early memories. We assessed the convergent validity of EMI scales with data from 103 women from an urban primary care clinic (Study 1) and data from 48 women and 24 men from a suburban primary care clinic (Study 2). Patients provided early memory narratives and completed self-report measures of psychopathology, trauma, and health care utilization. In both studies, lower scores on the Mental Health scale and higher scores on the Traumatic Experiences scale were related to higher scores on measures of psychopathology and childhood trauma. Less consistent associations were found between the Mental Health and Traumatic Experiences scores and measures of health care utilization. The Narrative Coherence scale showed inconsistent relationships across measures in both samples. In analyses assessing the overall fit between hypothesized and actual correlations between EMI scores and measures of psychopathology, severity of trauma symptoms, and health care utilization, the Mental Health scale of the EMI demonstrated stronger convergent validity than the EMI Traumatic Experiences scale. The results provide support for the convergent validity of the Mental Health scale of the EMI.     

Do developmental differences in mental toughness exist between specialized and invested Australian footballers?

Using a cross-sectional design, the primary purpose of the present study was to examine developmental differences in mental toughness between specialized and invested Australian footballers. A secondary purpose was to examine the psychometric properties of the Australian football Mental Toughness Inventory (AfMTI; Gucciardi, Gordon, & Dimmock, 2009a) with a sample of youth footballers. Participants were 350 footballers aged between 13 and 18 (M = 15.88; SD = 1.71); 144 (M_age = 14.06; SD = .89) and 206 (M_age = 17.02; SD = 1.06) footballers from the specialized and investment developmental stages, respectively. A confirmatory factor analysis of the AfMTI using AMOS did not reveal support for its psychometric structure; however, a revised version received support. A MANOVA revealed the presence of a significant difference between the two developmental groups, and follow-up ANOVA’s indicated that the desire success and sport awareness subscales contributed to multivariate effect. It appears that developmental differences should be considered in future theorizing on the development of mental toughness.     

Development of the Mental Health Locus of Control and Mental Health Locus of Origin Scales

The Mental Health Locus of Control (MHLC) Scale is an area-specific measure of locus of control expectancies designed to predict mental health related behaviors, particularly those occurring in treatment situations. The discriminant validity of the MHLC, in contrast with Rotter's 1-E measure of generalized expectancies, was demonstrated with two mental health related variables: beliefs concerning etiology of psychopathology, and information about abnormal psychology. Beliefs about etiology were measured by the Mental Health Locus of Origin (MHLO) Scale. The primary hypothesis, that individuals with 'endogenous' beliefs about etiology tend to have 'external' expectations for the client's role in treatment, was supported by a statistically significant (p < .001) correlation between the MHLC and MHLO Scales.     

Adolescents with high mental toughness adapt better to perceived stress: A longitudinal study with Swiss vocational students

A mindset of mental toughness enables an individual to cope successfully with the pressures and demands of life. This 10-month study prospectively examined the association between mental toughness and stress resilience in 865 students (M = 17.86 years, 42.7% girls) from two vocational schools. Within each school, separate cluster analyses identified groups with different profiles of risk (assessed with perceived stress) and adaptation (operationalized with depressive symptoms and life satisfaction). Four clusters emerged characterizing students with well-adjusted (low risk, good adaptation), maladjusted (elevated risk, bad adaptation), deteriorated (low initial risk, worsening adaptation) and resilient profiles (elevated initial risk, improving adaptation). The latter two clusters reported similar levels of mental toughness at baseline, but resilient adolescents scored significantly higher on mental toughness at follow-up. After controlling for possible confounds, baseline toughness levels predicted depressive symptoms and life satisfaction over time. This study shows that mental toughness operates as a stress resilience resource. Mental toughness is, therefore a topic of interest for health specialists working with adolescent populations.     

Do developmental differences in mental toughness exist between specialized and invested Australian footballers?

Using a cross-sectional design, the primary purpose of the present study was to examine developmental differences in mental toughness between specialized and invested Australian footballers. A secondary purpose was to examine the psychometric properties of the Australian football Mental Toughness Inventory (AfMTI; Gucciardi, Gordon, & Dimmock, 2009a) with a sample of youth footballers. Participants were 350 footballers aged between 13 and 18 (M = 15.88; SD = 1.71); 144 (M_age = 14.06; SD = .89) and 206 (M_age = 17.02; SD = 1.06) footballers from the specialized and investment developmental stages, respectively. A confirmatory factor analysis of the AfMTI using AMOS did not reveal support for its psychometric structure; however, a revised version received support. A MANOVA revealed the presence of a significant difference between the two developmental groups, and follow-up ANOVA’s indicated that the desire success and sport awareness subscales contributed to multivariate effect. It appears that developmental differences should be considered in future theorizing on the development of mental toughness.     

A subculture of mental toughness in an Australian Football League club

ObjectiveThe current study aimed to provide a subcultural analysis of mental toughness in a high-performance context in sport.DesignUsing Schein's (1990) framework of organisational culture, an exploratory qualitative analysis, employing focus group and individual interviews, was used to investigate mental toughness in an Australian Football League club.MethodNine senior coaches and players participated in focus group and individual interviews. Photo elicitation was used as a method to capture mental toughness through the identification of prominent club artefacts. Participants were considered to have significant subcultural knowledge of their football club and were willing to describe personal experiences and perceptions of mental toughness through this cultural lens. Deductive and inductive analyses were conducted to capture the core themes of mental toughness across the disparate levels of Schein's organisational framework.ResultsMental toughness was found to be a socially derived term marked by unrelenting standards and sacrificial displays. These acts were underpinned by subcultural values emphasising a desire for constant improvement, a team first ethos, relentless effort, and the maintenance of an infallible image. At its core, mental toughness was assumed to be an internal concept, epitomised an idealised form of masculinity, elitist values, and was rhetorically depicted through metaphors of war.ConclusionsIt may be difficult to understand mental toughness without giving attention to the contextual norms related to the term. Appreciating how people promote, instil, and internalise prized ideals coveted as mental toughness could be intriguing for future research in sport psychology.     

Measuring mental toughness in sport: a psychometric examination of the psychological performance inventory-a and its predecessor

Touted as a multidimensional measure of mental toughness in sport, this study explored the psychometric properties of the Psychological Performance Inventory (PPI; Loehr, 1986 ) and its successor the Psychological Performance Inventory-A (PPI-A; Golby, Sheard, & Van Wersch, 2007 ). Confirmatory factor analysis was employed to examine the extent to which data collected with 333 Australian footballers aged between 15 and 18 years (M = 16.88, SD = .71) fitted the a priori measurement models of both inventories. The results did not support the psychometric properties of the PPI both in terms of model fit and internal consistency. Although model fit data for the PPI-A were encouraging, inadequate levels of internal consistency were evidenced. Convergent validity analyses involving measures of achievement goals and global mental toughness generally supported the validity of the PPI and PPI-A subscales. Taken together with previous research (e.g., Middleton et al., 2004 ), caution is urged when considering the use of the PPI as a measure of mental toughness in sport. Although the empirical data were generally supportive of the psychometric properties of the PPI-A, conceptual (e.g., lack of conceptual underpinnings) and methodological (i.e., revalidated a flawed inventory) concerns become important factors when considering the PPI-A as a measure of mental toughness.     

The relationship between mental toughness and affect intensity

Mentally tough athletes are conceptualized as being able to function effectively in stressful situations and recent research has found small to moderate correlations between mental toughness and coping. Despite this no research has thus far examined the possibility that mentally tough athletes experience less intense emotions. This paper tested the relationship between mental toughness and affect intensity to determine whether mentally tough athletes generally experienced more or less intense emotions. A sample of 112 sport performers (55 men and 57 women) aged between 18 and 51 years (M = 29.3, s = 10.3) acted as participants, and ranged from recreational to national level in a variety of sports. Mental toughness and affect intensity were found to be unrelated. This is an important finding because it suggests participants with high or low levels of mental toughness do not characteristically experience more or less intense emotions. Thus there is no evidence to suggest the ability of mentally tough athletes to remain relatively unaffected by pressure or adversity is due to lower levels of affect intensity. More research is required to understand how mentally tough athletes (in comparison to less tough athletes) maintain control and high levels of performance in stressful circumstances.     

Understanding mental toughness at a Women’s Australian rules football club

Scholars have argued that mental toughness is a term that represents hypermasculine ideals. This hypermasculinity ideal could be considered relevant in the sport of Australian rules football, which has been played, at the professional level, by male athletes for the majority of its existence. Given the rising popularity of the Australian Football League Women’s (AFLW), the present research sought to explore how the term mental toughness was understood at an AFLW club through a cultural sport psychology lens. Interviews were conducted with players (n = 4) and coaches (n = 6) from an AFLW club over the course of a competitive season. Data were transcribed verbatim and thematically analysed, with themes constructed to correspond with different levels of contextual influence. From this analysis, the club values and underlying assumptions, the social truths, and the role models/archetypes that provided a collective understanding of the term were identified. Mental toughness was defined by high-performance values of the men’s game, which had implications for female athletes in this environment who are not afforded the same opportunities to fully embody these values. Mental toughness is positioned, in this environment, as an ideal with different meanings for female athletes due to structural factors associated with elite-level competition (e.g., full-time versus part-time professionalism).     

The Reliability and Validity of a Brief Self-Report Questionnaire to Screen for Mental Health Problems: The Health Dynamics Inventory

Mental health problems are underrecognized in medical settings, leading to inadequate treatment. The present paper describes the development of the Health Dynamics Inventory (HDI), a brief, self-report questionnaire developed to evaluate mental health functioning. The HDI was written to evaluate the three aspects of mental disorders as described in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM): (1) the experience of emotional or behavioral symptoms; (2) emotional distress; and (3) psychosocial impairment. This study evaluated the psychometric properties and construct validity of its items, scales, and subscales. Results indicated that the items distinguish patients from nonpatients, that the instrument's scales and subscales are reliable, and that the scales and subscales discriminates between persons with mental health concerns or diagnosable problems and those without such concerns or problems. The utility of the instrument for screening mental health problems in primary care settings is discussed.