Gender symmetry in intimate aggression: an effect of intimacy or target sex?

Men's greater use of direct aggression is not evident in studies of intimate partner aggression. In previous research, the effects of target sex and relationship intimacy have frequently been confounded. This study sought to examine these effects separately. One hundred and seventy-four participants (59 male and 115 female) read vignette scenarios in which they were provoked by a same-sex best friend, an opposite-sex best friend, and a partner. For each target, participants estimated their likely use of direct physical and verbal aggression as well as noninjurious forms of anger expression. Results showed that men lower their aggression in the context of an intimate partnership and that this is an effect of the target's sex. In contrast, women raise their aggression in the context of an intimate partnership and this is an effect of intimacy with the target. The use of noninjurious angry behavior did not vary between targets for either sex of the participant, which suggests that the effects of target are confined to behaviors which carry an intention to harm. Possible effects of social norms and oxytocin-mediated emotional disinhibition on intimate partner aggression are discussed.     

Predictors of intimacy in couples' discussions of relationship injuries: an observational study.

The interpersonal process model of intimacy (H. T. Reis & P. Shaver, 1988) proposes that self-disclosure and empathic responding form the basis of intimate interactions. This study examined this model in 102 community couples who completed intimacy measures following videotaped discussions about relationship injuries occurring both within and outside the relationship. Observational assessments of self-disclosure and empathic responding, as well as their respective components, were related to self-reported ratings of post-interaction intimacy. Men's own disclosure and empathic responding predicted their feelings of intimacy, whereas women's intimacy was predicted by their partner's disclosure and empathic responding. Self-disclosure and empathic responding appear to be important behavioral determinants of intimate feelings, but the manner in which they influence intimacy differs according to gender.     

Gender role attitudes,relationship efficacy,and self-disclosure in intimate relationships

Drawing from the intimacy process model and data from 5,042 individuals who remained partnered across Waves 1 and 2 of the German Panel Analysis of Intimate Relationships and Family Dynamics (pairfam), this study examined the contributions of traditional gender role attitudes and relationship efficacy in predicting levels of self-disclosure within an intimate relationship. Independent samples t-tests demonstrated females scored higher than males on self-disclosure and relationship efficacy measures but lower on traditional gender role attitudes. An ordinary least squares regression analysis revealed relationship efficacy was a stronger predictor of self-disclosure compared to traditional gender role attitudes, which were not associated with self-disclosure. The findings suggest attitudes with an interpersonal motivational system may be especially important for setting the intimacy process into motion within an intimate union.     

Low intimacy as a mediator between depression and clinic couple relationship satisfaction

This study examined low intimacy as a mediator between partners' depression symptoms and low relationship satisfaction in a sample of 82 heterosexual couples who sought therapy at an outpatient clinic. Both the amount of intimate behavior that partners enact and the level of pleasure they experience from each other's intimate acts were assessed. Using an actor–partner interdependence model approach, path model analysis simultaneously included both partners' scores on measures of depression, intimate behavior, pleasure from partner's intimate behavior, and relationship satisfaction. Overall, female depression symptoms had a greater impact than male depression symptoms on the couple relationship. Male depression had little effect on intimacy, whereas the female partner's depression affected her pleasure from the male's intimate behavior and both partners' enactment of intimate behavior. The results indicate the importance of examining reciprocal influences between partners' functioning to understand and treat intimacy problems.     

Enhancing Interpersonal Intimacy in Colombian Gay Men Using Functional Analytic Psychotherapy: An Experimental Nonconcurrent Multiple Baseline Design

A growing body of research suggests that rejection sensitivity, a form of interpersonal guardedness associated with familial rejection and societal bias, is a transdiagnostic risk factor for anxiety and mood disorders in gay men. From a behavioral perspective, rejection sensitivity is conceptualized as avoidance of intimacy as the result of systematic social punishment of vulnerable behaviors. Despite the implications of rejection sensitivity for psychological well-being, clinical psychology lacks specific behavioral interventions for emotional intimacy at the level of the individual. Functional Analytic Psychotherapy (FAP) is a therapeutic approach developed to enhance interpersonal behaviors that promote intimacy and closeness through identification of, and contingent responding to, clinically relevant behaviors.A nonconcurrent between-participants design examined the effectiveness of 4 to 8 sessions of FAP on reducing intimacy-avoiding behaviors and increasing intimacy-promoting behaviors in three Colombian gay men.FAP implementation yielded significant increases in intimacy promoting behaviors (β = 65.65, S.E. = 11.48, p = .0004) with a large effect size calculated by the between-case standardized mean difference (BC-SMD (17.01) = 1.66, CI [0.69–2.73]). The increase in intimacy-promoting behaviors occurred without evidence for reduction or elimination of intimacy-avoiding behaviors.Recommendations for future research include (1) the implementation of longitudinal intensive studies to capture participants' out-of-session behavioral changes and (2) further research to determine FAP’s effectiveness for increasing intimacy-promoting behaviors among other sexual or gender minority individuals.     

Sex-role orientation and intimacy status in men and women

Sex-role orientation based on combined t-ratio/median-split scoring of Personal Attributes Questionnaire data was investigated in relation to intimacy status in a sample of university alumini with an average age of 25 years. There was no significant sex difference in sex-role orientation or social status. As expected, androgyny was associated with the preintimate status in both men and women. Contrary to prediction, androgyny was also associated with the less intimate statuses of merger in men and pseudointimate in women; sex-typing was associated with the most intimate status in both sexes. All sex-typed individuals were involved in long-term, heterosexual partnership varying in level of intimacy.Part of this research was included in a presentation at the Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, Montreal, September 1980. The author thanks Susan Krauss Whitbourne for providing advice and intimacy status ratings for this research.     

The impact of child sexual abuse on adult interpersonal functioning: A review and synthesis of the empirical literature

The many studies that have examined the long-term impact of child sexual abuse (CSA) on adult functioning have primarily focused on the personal distress of survivors, largely ignoring the impact of CSA on interpersonal relationships. This article reviews empirical findings concerning the interpersonal distress of survivors as expressed in their intimate and sexual relationships. First, current conceptualizations of the relationship between CSA and interpersonal relationships are reviewed, with a focus on the theoretical models that appear to have implications for the long-term interpersonal sequelae associated with CSA. This is followed by a review of the research conducted on intimacy within the area of social psychology and a summary of the empirical findings related to intimacy functioning in CSA survivors. A hypothesized typology of intimacy functioning for survivors is suggested. The effects of CSA on three components of sexuality—sexual dysfunctions, underlying psychological components of sexuality, and sexual orientation—are discussed. Finally, the interpersonal issues believed to be most salient for CSA survivors in the therapeutic setting are discussed, along with implications for the client–therapist relationship. Methodological, assessment, and conceptual issues are discussed throughout. Recommendations for future research and clinical endeavors are suggested.     

Understanding identity disruption and intimacy: One aspect of post-traumatic stress

This paper details the change taking place in the mental processes of trauma victims and the subsequent disruption of identity and intimacy. For those who experience a traumatic incident concepts of self and world views may be broken. The psychic numbing and disruption of the symbolic processes attendant to traumatic events may interfere with recovery. Lacking a strong sense of self and feeling blameful for what they have experienced, trauma victims may become unable to sustain intimate relationships and romantic dyads. They may become isolated and withdrawn, fearing the closeness of others. Psychic numbing blocks emotions and impedes interpersonal relations and intimacy. At the same time, symbolic processes become impaired and identity is marked by separation, disintegration, and stasis.His major area of interest is the intersection of traumatic stress and the family.     

The Influence of Type A and B Behavior Patterns on the Perceived Quality of Dating Relationships1

This study examined the influence of Type A and B behavior on the reported satisfaction of dating couples. It was hypothesized that the competitive style of the Type A would hinder the smooth functioning of intimate relationships, particularly when exhibited by the female partner. Results supported this prediction and further indicated that Type A females were involved in relationships that developed to the stage of intimacy (i.e., dating) nearly twice as quickly as relationships involving Type B women. These results suggest the importance of the Type A and B patterns in the investigation of interpersonal relationships.     

The development of intimate relationships in late adolescence

Adolescence is a time of burgeoning social relationships. Further, adolescents begin to develop the capacity to be intimate. Yet, little attention has been paid to the development of intimacy in adolescence. In this paper, relationship maturity, a developmental conception of intimacy, is presented as a unifying conceptual framework for understanding these intimate involvements as part of a major developmental process. Relevant empirical literature is reviewed. Issues addressed include: specific contexts of intimacy in adolescence, the role of gender in intimacy development, the interplay of identity and intimacy development, and the effects of social issues on this process.     

INTERPERSONAL PERCEPTION BETWEEN INTIMATES An Integrative Review

Despite the considerable importance often attributed to interpersonal perception between married partners, family members, and other intimates, there have been few theoretical developments that address the distinctive factors affecting perception in these contexts. This article draws upon a broad literature review to suggest how interpersonal perception between intimates may be affected by such factors as familiarity, emotionality, behavioral interdependence, and ideological beliefs about intimacy. Particular attention is given to the role of perceptual bias in intimate conflict and relationship adjustment.     

Defensiveness, intimacy, and heterosexual attraction

A previous study by Dion and Dion (1975) revealed that highly defensive individuals were less likely to report having experienced romantic love than less defensive persons. The hypothesis that this finding might reflect differential reactions to interpersonal intimacy was directly examined in the present study using a self-disclosure paradigm. To assess subjects' defensiveness, undergraduate women first completed the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale. In a second session, subjects were exposed to high and low disclosing targets of the same and opposite sex and chose discussion topics for each target. On intimacy of self-disclosure, a “reciprocity effect” occurred: subjects chose more intimate topics for high vs low-disclosing targets. However, highly defensive women gave a less favorable self-presentation to male vs female targets. They also expressed less liking for high compared to low intimate targets and males vs females than less defensive subjects. The implications of these results for heterosexual attraction were discussed.     

Gradients of attraction as a function of the fit between social setting and stimulus person characteristics: Studies of the differentiation of attitude

Two experiments compared three alternative hypotheses concerning differences in attraction to a person across interaction settings: A compartmentalization hypothesis assumes that a person's (A's) intimate and nonintimate characteristics only affect attraction to him in intimate and nonintimate interactions, respectively, and that there is no generalization of attraction across levels of intimacy. An intimacy dominance hypothesis assumes that a person's intimacy-related characteristics determine attraction to him at all levels of interaction. Finally, an intimacy threshold hypothesis assumes that a person's intimacy-related characteristics become increasingly relevant to attraction as the intimacy of interaction increases, but that these characteristics need not influence attraction at nonintimate levels of interaction. Experiment 1 supported the compartmentalization hypothesis. Attraction to a formal teacher decreased as the intimacy of the anticipated setting increased, while attraction to an informal teacher increased with increasing setting intimacy. In Experiment 2, agreement on intimate topics promoted liking for a peer while no effect was found for agreement on superficial topics. This effect only emerged for intimate interaction settings, supporting the intimacy threshold hypothesis. High positive correlations between distance preference and attraction were obtained in Experiment 1, while analogous data obtained in Experiment 2 had less clear implications.     

伴侣低头行为的影响及其心理机制

低头行为指的是线下社会互动时个体因使用手机而冷落社交对象的行为。目前关于低头行为研究最多的是伴侣低头行为。文章在剖析伴侣低头行为内涵之外,分析了伴侣低头行为带来的影响,并从期望违背理论、社会交换理论和相互依赖理论三个视角阐释伴侣低头行为发生的理论机制。总体上,基于现有研究我们认为未来可以从深化作用机制和探索跨关系研究（亲密关系—亲子关系）两个方面进行伴侣低头行为对亲密关系的研究。     

Trait Agreeableness and Social Status Moderate Behavioral Responsiveness to Communal Behavior

The present study examined the influence of trait Agreeableness and its interaction with social role status on interpersonal correspondence as reflected in the within‐person relation between a person's communal (agreeable‐quarrelsome) behavior and perceptions of the interaction partner's communal behavior. We used a sample of working adults (original data set: 113 participants and 12,303 interpersonal events; constrained data set in the work setting: 109 participants and 3,193 interpersonal events) and an event‐contingent recording procedure to assess behavior in naturalistic interpersonal events. The results of multilevel modeling indicated that interpersonal correspondence was lower for high trait Agreeableness persons than for low trait Agreeableness persons, apparently due to less responsiveness to more disagreeable behavior by the other person in an interaction. High Agreeableness persons manifest greater interpersonal correspondence when in a high‐status role than when in a low‐status role, apparently by increasing responsiveness to disagreeable behavior from others. The results imply that high social role status may influence the effortful control process of high trait Agreeableness persons over their behavioral reactions to others' disagreeable behavior during interpersonal interactions.     

Couple Relationship Distress and Observed Expression of Intimacy During Reminiscence About Positive Relationship Events

Satisfied couples report that positive, intimate communication is central to their relationship. We developed the positive reminiscence task, in which couples discuss positive relationship moments to assess communication of positive intimacy. The behavior and heart rate of 28 satisfied and 25 distressed couples were assessed during positive reminiscence and problem solving. As predicted, satisfied couples demonstrated higher rates of positive affect and dyadic intimacy than distressed couples during positive reminiscence, and these positive behaviors occurred at much lower rates during problem solving than positive reminiscence. However, the differences between distressed and satisfied couples were more marked on most assessed behaviors during problem solving rather than positive reminiscence. Two notable exceptions were that dyadic intimacy and sadness differed more between distressed and satisfied couples during positive reminiscence than problem solving. The positive reminiscence task assesses intimate behaviors in a manner likely to be useful in research and practice.     

Rorschach Measures of Posttraumatic Stress in Persian Gulf War Veterans

Imaginative stories written in response to either 6 or 10 different Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) pictures by over 1,500 college students in two studies were scored for intimacy motivation (McAdams, 1980), and a subset were scored for fear of intimacy (Pollack & Gilligan, 1982). The intimacy motive is a recurrent preference or readiness for experiences of warm, close, and communicative interaction with others, and it is assessed by coding the quality of the interpersonal interaction exhibited by characters in a TAT story. Fear of intimacy, on the other hand, is assumed to reveal itself through images of violence displayed in affiliative and intimate situations in TAT stories, for example, when one lover kills another. In both studies, women scored significantly higher than men on intimacy motivation, especially with respect to the intimacy themes of Relationship Produces Positive Affect, Relationship Transcends Space-Time Limitations, Surrender of Control in Relationships, and Connection to Outside World. This sex difference in intimacy motivation was most pronounced in stories written to pictures portraying possible heterosexual romance. Contrary to findings obtained by Pollack and Gilligan, however, men did not write more stories with themes of violence in intimate relationships than did women, providing little support for Consistent sex differences in a general fear of intimacy.     

The Advantage of Democratic Peer Punishment in Sustaining Cooperation within Groups

In social dilemma situations, individuals benefit from uncooperative behavior while exploiting resources of the collective. One prominent solution to prevent uncooperative behavior and to increase cooperation is to establish a system of costly peer punishment, that is, the possibility for every individual involved in the dilemma to impose costly punishment on interaction partners. However, recent research revealed that, in contrast to a situation without punishment, peer punishment is inefficient and maladaptive in the sense that the total payoff is reduced and punishment of cooperative individuals (i.e., antisocial punishment) is possible. In the present work, we propose that a system of democratic peer punishment, that is, direct and equal participation of each individual in the punishment decision‐making process with punishment only executed when a majority has voted for its execution, can address the shortcomings of a peer punishment system. Using iterated public goods games, we show higher cooperation levels, higher total payoffs, and reduced executed punishment in the democratic compared with a peer punishment system. Moreover, we document that fairness perceptions, satisfaction, and interpersonal trust are increased in the democratic punishment system. Implications for how cooperation and democratic punishment systems may evolve are discussed. Copyright © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Psychotherapy: Close encounters of the intimate kind

The therapeutic relation is a unique and special kind of human interaction, an intimate relationship which involves the whole of two human beings, but which is confined to a certain place, time and circumstance. The intimacy that develops between therapist and patient within the context of psychotherapy can be compared to other close and intimate human interactions, but it differs from other human encounters in numerous respects, especially in regard to the roles of the participants.The therapist-patient relationship is examined across various therapeutic techniques and theoretical models, with focus on the intimacy that may develop within the context of therapy, and contrasting it with other human intimate contacts. The roles of the therapist and the patient in developing and maintaining this intimacy, as well as its potential for both contributing to personal growth and to termination of the relationship, are reviewed. An issue that may usually be a natural extension of intimacy, sexual involvement between intimate partners, is explored with reference to the special nature of the therapeutic relationship.Based on a paper presented at the 37th annual convention of the Ontario Psychological Association, February 9, 1984; Toronto, Ontario.