Muslim-Christian Religious Orientation Scales: Distinctions,Correlations, and Cross-Cultural Analysis in Iran and the United States

Allport and Ross (1967) Religious Orientation Scales were administered along with nine new Muslim-Christian Religious Orientation Scales (MCROS) to students in Iran and the United States. Religious extrinsicness was associated with self-reported symptoms of psychological disturbance; with the Iranians, intrinsicness predicted adjustment. Most relations among the religious variables were positive with the two samples displaying similar, though not identical, patterns of correlations. Factor analysis of all religious scales in each sample separately yielded two components suggesting Allport's differentiation between the intrinsic and extrinsic motivations. In both samples, partial correlations and multiple regressions were used to remove variance associated with the Allport and Ross scales, and at least some evidence testified to the incremental validity of each MCROS measure in predicting psychological symptoms and the other MCROS variables. Most important, this first systematic, empirical study of the psychology of religion in Iran confirmed the relevance of Allport's thought for understanding Muslim religion and established an empirical foundation for further explorations of the MCROS.     

Adult Intimate Relationships and Psychological Adjustment

This study explored relations among perceived acceptance and behavioral control by intimate partners, remembrances of parents’ acceptance and behavioral control in childhood, and adults’ psychological adjustment. The study was conducted on 98 American adults (50 men and 48 women) between ages 18 and 50 (mean 26 years). Measures used were the Adult version of the Parental Acceptance-Rejection/Control Questionnaire for Mothers and Fathers(Adult PARQ/Control: Mother and Father); Intimate Partner Acceptance-Rejection/Control Questionnaire (IPAR/CQ); and, the Adult version of the Personality Assessment Questionnaire (Adult PAQ). Results showed significant positive correlations between psychological adjustment and perceived partner acceptance and parental acceptance for both women and men. Results also showed significant negative correlations between psychological adjustment and perceived partner control and parental control for both women and men. Regression analyses, however, revealed a significant independent effect of only paternal acceptance (but not of maternal and partner acceptance) on the psychological adjustment of men. Regression analyses also revealed significant independent effects of both paternal and maternal acceptance (but not partner acceptance) on the psychological adjustment of women.     

Psychological organizations in the United States

The organizations to which psychologists belonged at the turn of the 20th century were identified. The attributes of the meetings and the membership of those organizations were compared and discussed. In addition to the American Psychological Association, psychologists belonged to the American Philosophical Association and the American Association for the Advancement of Science as well as to local and regional organizations. In addition, some psychologists belonged to the Society of Experimental Psychology, but membership in that organization was by invitation only. The topics presented at the meetings of the psychological and philosophical associations often were identical or very similar, and the clear disciplinary separation that is typical in 2000 was rare in 1900.     

Amanah and Muslim Identity: Relationships with Religious and Psychological Adjustment in Malaysia

Amanah refers to the accountability of Muslims to their community. In Malaysian Muslim university students (N = 209), an Amanah Scale predicted a stronger sense of identity along with more adaptive religious and psychosocial functioning. Multiple regression analyses identified Accountability to Society as especially influential, but Accountability to Allah exhibited at least some problematic implications. Amanah mediated Identity linkages with some measures of religious and psychological adjustment, but also suppressed Identity relationships with greater self-knowledge and lower anxiety. These data confirmed the importance of communal commitments in Muslim mental health, suggested that accountability may have limited liabilities as well as more obvious psychosocial advantages, and identified possible complexities in the assessment of Accountability to Allah.

     

Diversity and Complexity of Religion and Spirituality in Iran: Relationships With Self-Compassion and Self-Forgiveness

This study examined religious-spiritual types in Iran by comparing seminary and university students on self-compassion, self-forgiveness, and other measures of religious and psychological functioning. Islamic seminarians (N = 198) more frequently self-identified as both religious and spiritual or as religious only. University students (N = 302) more commonly described themselves as spiritual only or as neither spiritual nor religious. The both religious and spiritual type was highest in religious commitment, self-compassion, and psychological adjustment, with the neither religious nor spiritual type tending to score lowest. The religious-only type displayed the lowest self-forgiveness. Seminarians were also lower in self-forgiveness, but otherwise higher than university students in their mental health. In correlations, self-compassion was compatible, but self-forgiveness was incompatible with Muslim commitments. Muslim spirituality moderated Muslim attitude relationships. These data documented the diversity and complexity of religion, spirituality, and perspectives on the self in Iranian Muslims.     

Parallel lives: Community psychology in Latin America and the United States

Comparing the history of community psychology as it developed in the U.S. during the 1960s with the community psychology that developed 10 years later in Latin America, one is reminded of the title of Plutarch’s masterpice,Parallel Lives. Although there was very little contact or communication between the first community psychologists in these regions, very similar principles and orientations evolved. These similarities are particularly striking given the many ways in which the U.S. and Latin American contexts and histories differ. Since most readers are expected to be familiar with the history of community psychology as it developed in the U.S., this paper focuses primarily on the development of community psychology in Latin America in order to highlight areas of convergence as well as divergence from the U.S. experience. This paper is based on an address presented at the Fourth Biennial Conference, Society for Community Research and Action, Division 27 of the American Psychological Association, William and Mary College, Williamsburg, Virginia, 1993. The author acknowledges the valuable help received from J. R. Newbrough and from the referees in the revision of this paper.     

Parental Control: A Second Cross-Cultural Research on Parenting and Psychological Adjustment of Children

Parental control is among the important factors influencing the psychological development of children. In addition to other questionnaires, a questionnaire of father and mother control was administered to adolescents in nine countries. The results showed that parental control differs across cultures. Parental control was higher in the eastern than western countries. Mothers, particularly in the west, are more controlling than fathers. Fathers’ rather than mothers’ control was associated with adolescents’ psychological disorders in the west, but not in the east. Inconsistent parental control was associated with psychological disorders.     

Parental Inconsistency: A Third Cross-Cultural Research on Parenting and Psychological Adjustment of Children

Inconsistency in parenting is a factor that may influence children’s mental health. A questionnaire, measuring three parental inconsistencies (temporal, situational, and father-mother inconsistency) was administered to adolescents in nine countries to assess its association with adolescents’ psychological disorders. The results show that parental inconsistency varies across cultures. Temporal inconsistency is not correlated with the other two inconsistencies. Temporal and father–mother inconsistencies, but not the situational inconsistency, were associated with adolescents’ psychological disorders. The associations between parental inconsistency and psychological disorders differed across cultures.     

Adolescents-Family Connectedness: A First Cross-Cultural Research on Parenting and Psychological Adjustment of Children

Connectedness between children and their family is a major factor that distinguishes between collective and individualistic cultures. The Multigenerational Interconnectedness Scale, measuring adolescents-family connectedness was administered to adolescents in nine western and eastern countries. The findings show that connectedness in eastern countries was higher than that in western ones. Female adolescents were more connected to their families than males. Connectedness was higher among families with a higher economic level and where the parents had more education. Financial and functional connectedness was associated with adolescents’ better mental health, whereas emotional connectedness (or dependency) was associated with psychological disorders. The association between connectedness and psychological disorders was not the same across countries.     

Working Hours and Life Satisfaction: A Cross-Cultural Comparison of Latin America and the United States

This paper compares the life satisfaction and working hours of Latin Americans and U.S. Americans using the AmericasBarometer and General Social Survey. While there are many common determinants of happiness, hours worked is not among them. Differences in cultural values, especially the distinction between collectivism (familism) and individualism that has long been a foundation of social development theory, may be why married Latin American males are less happy than married U.S. American males when working longer hours. The distinction is not apparent among females or the unmarried.     

Reflection-Impulsivity in Mexican Children: Cross-Cultural Relationships

Urban Mexican children aged 5 (n = 23) and 9 (n = 87) years were given the Matching Familiar Figures Test (MFFT). The results indicate that the MFFT was a valid test of cognitive style for Mexican children. The younger children's MFFT performance was characterized as fast and inaccurate in relation to the older children's performance, which was slower and more accurate. Cross-cultural comparisons of Mexican MFFT scores with normative data from America, Japan, and Israel indicated that Mexican children were relatively impulsive in cognitive style in relation to children of other cultures. Potential factors contributing to these cross-cultural differences are discussed here.     

The Relationships Between Hypergender, Gender, and Psychological Adjustment

The purpose of this study was to evaluate how the constructs of hypermasculinity and hyperfemininity correlate with gender-related individual differences in agency, communion, and occupational interests over and above hypergender’s hypothesized associations with psychological symptomatology. Hypermasculinity and hyperfemininity were significantly related to overall symptomatology. Only hyperfemininity was significantly related to one measure of gender-related personality traits (i.e., communion). Exploratory analyses revealed various relationships between gender measures and relative scores of psychological symptomatology. Overall, results indicated that hypergender may represent an independent domain of gender and may be especially useful in delineating the relationships between gender and psychological well-being.     

Dimensions of the Mysticism Scale: Confirming the Three-Factor Structure in the United States and Iran

In a mostly Christian American sample (N = 1,379), confirmatory factor analysis of Hood's (1975) Mysticism Scale verified the existence of Stace's (1960) introvertive and extrovertive dimensions of mystical phenomenology along with a separate interpretation factor. A second study confirmed the presence of these three factors in not only another group of Americans (N = 188), but also in a sample of Iranian Muslims (N = 185). Relationships of the introvertive and extrovertive factors with the interpretation factor were essentially identical across these two cultures, but the Americans displayed a stronger association between the two phenomenology factors. In both samples, the interpretation factor correlated positively with an intrinsic and negatively with an extrinsic religious orientation, and the introvertive factor predicted psychological dysfunction. Associations of the interpretation factor with relative mental health appeared only in the Iranians. These data offered general support for Stace's phenomenology of mysticism, although the ineffability he linked with interpretation proved to be as much or even more a feature of the introvertive experience, as hypothesized by Hood.     

Two facets of self-knowledge: cross-cultural development of measures in Iran and the United States

Self-knowledge is an ideal not only within psychological theory and practice but also within the religious and philosophical foundations of many cultures. In 6 studies conducted in Iran and the United States, the authors sought to construct and to validate scales for measuring two facets of self-knowledge. Experiential self-knowledge was defined as an ongoing sensitivity to the self in the present. Reflective self-knowledge was described in terms of personal efforts to integrate experience within self-schemas developed in the past. Thirteen-item experiential self-knowledge and reflective self-knowledge scales were created by the authors using samples of Iranian and American university students. A confirmatory factor analysis verified this 2-factor structure in a second study, and these results were replicated in a 3rd study. Correlations with a broad array of self-report variables established the two scales as valid measures of adjustment. Both displayed adequate test-retest reliability. Correlations with peer reports suggested that the two factors had behavioral implications in both cultures. Reflective self-knowledge proved to be as important as educational abilities in predicting the academic performance of Americans who were motivated to attend class. Experiential self-knowledge and reflective self-knowledge also interacted to predict better grades. In short, the experiential self-knowledge and reflective self-knowledge scales operationalized cross-cultural personality processes that deserve additional research attention.     

Attitudes Toward and Beliefs about Transgender Youth: A Cross-Cultural Comparison Between the United States and India

Using an internet-based survey, we examined attitudes toward transgender youth in the United States and India, two cultures with differences in conceptualizations of gender and treatment of transgender individuals in society, law, and religion. We found generally positive attitudes toward transgender youth in our U.S. (n = 218), but moderately negative ones in our Indian (n = 217), sample. Consistent with the literature on prejudice against transgender adults in many Western societies, general social conservatism in the form of religious beliefs and political ideology, gender-specific conservatism in the form of gender binary belief, and endorsement of environmental rather than biological causes of transgender identity were the best predictors of U.S. participants’ attitudes, although personal contact with gender and sexual minorities also played a role at the bivariate level. These findings suggest that the processes underlying prejudice against transgender youth are similar to those that foster adult-directed transphobia in that cultural context. In contrast, religion-based disapproval and environmental causal attributions were the best predictors of Indian respondents’ attitudes, whereas gender binary belief played only a minor role, and political conservatism and personal contact no role at all. Our regression analyses accounted for considerably more of the variability in U.S. than in Indian participants’ attitudes, highlighting the need for additional (qualitative) work to identify the factors that promote transprejudice in India. We discuss these findings in light of cross-cultural differences between the two countries in terms of our predictors and consider implications for efforts to reduce prejudice against transgender youth.     

Child Care in Cross-Cultural Perspectives: Implications for the Future Organization of Child Care in the United States

In every society care of children is primarily a female responsibility, yet there is still tremendous cross-cultural variation in the organization of child care. Three characteristics of child care in small-scale traditional agrarian societies are discussed: role integration, use of auxiliary caregivers, and the effects of certain ecological patterns on childrearing. Data concerning each of these points is presented, along with implications for the future organization of child care in our own society. These implications are based on, first, the assumption of adaptiveness in forms of child care organization that have evolved over periods of time in these relatively stable societies, and, secondly, on the notion that concepts of child care that work in other societies can, in many cases, be adapted to current conditions in the United States.     

Introduction to Special Section on Cross-Cultural Research on Parenting and Psychological Adjustment of Children

Parental factors such as control, rejection, and inconsistency have been reported as associated with psychological maladjustment. The papers in this Special Section are based on a multi-national study examining the association between these parental factors and adolescents’ psychological disorders in nine western and eastern countries, differing in family connectedness. Questionnaires assessing these factors were administered to 2,884 male and female adolescents. In this paper we discuss the parental factors and describe the methodology. We hypothesize that parental factors, family connectedness, and the association between these factors and adolescents’ mental health differ across cultures. In the papers that follow, we present the results and discuss their implications.