“I would have lost the respect of my friends and family if they knew I had bent the road rules”: Parents,peers, and the perilous behaviour of young drivers

Young novice drivers are at considerable risk of injury on the road. Their behaviour appears vulnerable to the social influence of their parents and friends. The nature and mechanisms of parent and peer influence on young novice driver (16–25 years) behaviour was explored via small group interviews (n = 21) and two surveys (n1 = 1170, n2 = 390) to inform more effective young driver countermeasures. Parental and peer influence occurred in pre-Licence, Learner, and Provisional (intermediate) periods. Pre-Licence and unsupervised Learner drivers reported their parents were less likely to punish risky driving (e.g., speeding). These drivers were more likely to imitate their parents and reported their parents were also risky drivers. Young novice drivers who experienced or expected social punishments from peers, including ‘being told off’ for risky driving, reported less riskiness. Conversely drivers who experienced or expected social rewards such as being ‘cheered on’ by friends – who were also more risky drivers – reported more risky driving including crashes and offences. Interventions enhancing positive influence and curtailing negative influence may improve road safety outcomes not only for young novice drivers, but for all persons who share the road with them. Parent-specific interventions warrant further development and evaluation including: modelling safe driving behaviour by parents; active monitoring of driving during novice licensure; and sharing the family vehicle during the intermediate phase. Peer-targeted interventions including modelling of safe driving behaviour and attitudes; minimisation of social reinforcement and promotion of social sanctions for risky driving also need further development and evaluation.     

Reward versus punishment: Reinforcement sensitivity theory,young novice drivers’ perceived risk,and risky driving

One reason that young novice drivers remain statistically over-represented in road deaths is their rate of engagement in risky driving. Prominent contributing factors include driver’s age, sex, personality, risk perception, and their driving experience. This study applied reinforcement sensitivity theory (RST, specifically reward sensitivity and punishment sensitivity) to predict young novice drivers’ perceived risk and self-reported risky driving engagement, while accounting for potential influences of age, sex, and driving experience. Drivers (N = 643, 490 females, 17–25 years, M = 20.02, SD = 2.32) who held an Australian driver’s license (P1, P2, or Open) anonymously completed an online survey containing the Behaviour of Young Novice Drivers Scale, the Sensitivity to Punishment and Sensitivity to Reward Questionnaire, and a measure of perceived risk of driving-related behaviours. A path analytic model derived from RST showed that perceived risk had the strongest negative association with reported risky driving engagement, followed by reward sensitivity (positive association). Respondent’s age and reward sensitivity were associated with perceived risk. Age, reward sensitivity, and perceived risk were associated with reported engagement in risky driving behaviours. Driver sex only had direct paths with RST variables, and through reward sensitivity, indirect paths to perceived risk, and reported risky driving. Neither punishment sensitivity nor driving experience contributed significantly to the model. Implications and applications of the model, and the unique set of variables examined, are discussed in relation to road safety interventions and driver training.     

The effect of positive and negative emotions on young drivers: A simulator study

The study examined the influence of affect induction on actual risk-taking behavior in a driving simulator, as well as the links between personal variables (relevance of driving to self-esteem, sensation seeking) and the level of risky driving. Eighty young drivers aged 18–21 (M = 19.24, SD = 0.75) were randomly divided into four induction groups: relaxing positive affect; arousing positive affect; negative affect; and neutral affect. The participants drove on a simulator, with various parameters of risky driving measured before and after emotion priming.As predicted, arousing positive affect and negative affect led to increased risky driving, whereas relaxing positive affect moderated risk-taking. In addition, the results confirm previous findings regarding the personal variables, revealing that higher levels of relevance of driving to self-esteem and sensation seeking are associated with higher levels of risk-taking in the simulated driving.The findings indicate that the driver’s emotional state has a significant effect on risk-taking on the road. Moreover, they show that the conventional use of negative affect in safe driving campaigns is liable to heighten the tendency for risky driving rather than reduce it. In contrast, relaxing positive affect was found to lead to lower risk-taking. The study is unique in revealing a correlation between results previously obtained for the willingness to drive recklessly and actual risky driving behavior observed on a driving simulator. By expanding the understanding of the motivations for youngsters’ risky driving, the study may aid in designing effective, theoretically sound, interventions aimed at reducing the tendency for dangerous driving among young drivers.     

The self-reported driving behaviour of young drivers in Lithuania: An application of the behaviour of young novice drivers scale – Lithuania (BYNDS-Li)

BackgroundWith just one year left in the Decade of Action for Road Safety, it is timely nations reflect on their progress in the realm of improving road safety more generally, and in young driver road safety specifically given the pernicious problem that is young driver risky driving behaviour and road crashes. Effective intervention requires a fundamental foundation of understanding the nature of the problem. Therefore the current study explored the self-reported risky driving behaviour of young drivers in Lithuania, a nation classified as a developed country as recently as 2015.MethodThe self-report Behaviour of Young Novice Drivers Scale (BYNDS, 1) was applied in a sample of 457 Lithuanian young drivers aged 18–24 years, after a rigorous forward-backward translation process.ResultsSeven factors (risky exposure, transient rule violations, driver misjudgements, driver mood, vehicle overcrowding, personal seatbelt use, substance consumption) explained 65.2% of the variance in self-reported risky driving behaviour as measured by the BYNDS-Li. The most common risky driving behaviours included driving in excess of posted speed limits, and driving at high risk times such as at night and on weekends.Discussion and implicationsThe seven-factor structure of the BYNDS-Li supports arguments that culturally-valid measures should be operationalised in jurisdictions other than those in which they were developed (in the case of the BYNDS, Queensland, Australia). Moreover, systems thinking argues that interventions and efforts must be multi-sectoral and collaborative interventions. In the case of young driver road safety, these should be framed within the 4E’s of education, engineering, enforcement, and engagement.     

Transcultural validation and reliability of the Spanish version of the behaviour of young novice drivers scale (BYNDS) in a Colombian young driver population

The overrepresentation of young drivers in road crashes, and the fatalities and injuries arising from those crashes, is an intractable problem around the world. A plethora of research has led to the development and application of a range of research tools, including self-report survey instruments. One such instrument, the five-factor Behaviour of Young Novice Driver Scale (BYNDS), was developed in an Australian young driver population, and has recently been validated in a New Zealand young driver population. The current study aimed to validate the BYNDS in a Colombian young driver population, the first application of the instrument in a developing country. Translation from English to Spanish, and back translation from Spanish to English, in addition to culturally-appropriate modifications (such as changing ‘right hand side’ to ‘left hand side’) resulted in a Spanish version of the BYNDS (BYNDS-Sp). The BYNDS-Sp was administered to a sample of 392 young drivers aged 16–24 years (n = 353 aged 19–24 years) with a valid driver’s licence. An exploratory factor analysis revealed a six factor structure using 40 of the original 44 BYNDS-Sp items, accounting for 58.5% of the variance in self-reported risky driving behaviour. Ninety-three percent of participants reported having ready access to their own vehicle (42% owned their own vehicle), with Colombian young drivers most likely to report driving at night and on the weekend. The majority of participants reported driving in excess of posted speed limits (e.g., only one third of participants reported never driving 10–20 km/h over the speed limit), and driving in response to their mood (e.g., only one third of participants reported they never drove faster if in a bad mood). As such, the BYNDS-Sp can reveal patterns of problematic behaviours (such as risky driving exposure), in addition to specific behaviours of concern (such as carrying passengers at night, and driving when tired), guiding the development and implementation of interventions targeting the risky driving behaviour of young drivers in Colombia. In addition, the BYNDS-Sp can be used as a measure of intervention success if used as a baseline and as a follow-up tool. Further research can investigate the utility and applicability of the BYNDS-Sp in other Spanish-speaking countries, such as Spain and Mexico.     

The psychosocial purpose of driving and its relationship with the risky driving behaviour of young novice drivers

BackgroundThe overrepresentation of young drivers in road crashes, injuries and fatalities around the world has resulted in a breadth of injury prevention efforts including education, enforcement, engineering, and exposure control. Despite multifaceted intervention, the young driver problem remains a challenge for injury prevention researchers, practitioners and policy-makers. The intractable nature of young driver crash risks suggests that a deeper understanding of their car use – that is, the purpose of their driving – is required to inform the design of more effective young driver countermeasures.AimsThis research examined the driving purpose reported by young drivers, including the relationship with self-reported risky driving behaviours including offences.MethodsYoung drivers with a Learner or Provisional licence participated in three online surveys (N1 = 656, 17–20 years; N2 = 1051, 17–20 years; N3 = 351, 17–21 years) as part of a larger state-wide project in Queensland, Australia.ResultsA driving purpose scale was developed (the PsychoSocial Purpose Driving Scale, PSPDS), revealing that young drivers drove for psychosocial reasons such as for a sense of freedom and to feel independent. Drivers who reported the greatest psychosocial purpose for driving were more likely to be male and to report more risky driving behaviours such as speeding. Drivers who deliberately avoided on-road police presence and reported a prior driving-related offence had significantly greater PSPDS scores, and higher reporting of psychosocial driving purposes was found over time as drivers transitioned from the supervised Learner licence phase to the independent Provisional (intermediate) licence phase.Discussion and conclusionsThe psychosocial needs met by driving suggest that effective intervention to prevent young driver injury requires further consideration of their driving purpose. Enforcement, education, and engineering efforts which consider the psychosocial purpose of the driving are likely to be more efficacious than those which presently do not. Road safety countermeasures could reduce the young driver’s exposure to risk through such mechanisms as encouraging the use of public transport.     

Designing road safety interventions for young drivers – The power of peer influence

Peer passengers are associated with risky driving behaviour and increased collision rate in young drivers, but the mechanism by which young drivers are influenced by their peers is not well understood. Here we report two studies that explore the effect of peer influence on young drivers. The first explored the relationship between susceptibility to peer influence and young drivers’ engagement in risky driving behaviour. 163 young drivers completed self-report measures of risky driving behaviour and susceptibility to different forms of peer influence. Results showed that young drivers who were influenced by their peers to attain social prestige and through peers intervening in their decisions committed more driving violations. The second study sought to utilise the susceptibility of young drivers to peer influence by using peers to design and deliver a safety intervention, following the ‘U in the Driver Seat’ model from the US. When compared to a traditional fear appeal and a control, the peer intervention group reported safer attitudes and intentions to drive safely at follow-up. Together these studies provide insight into how peers influence young drivers’ risky behaviour, and support the notion of using peer education tools in young driver safety interventions.     

Keep on cruising: Changes in lifestyle and driving style among male drivers between the age of 18 and 23

Despite recent improvements in general road safety levels, young male drivers in most western countries continue to be overrepresented in road traffic accidents. Lifestyle related motivational factors are a key element in the young male driver problem. Based on 379 posted questionnaires completed by the same male drivers at the age of 18 and again at the age of 23, this study examined changes in the relationship between lifestyle and driving style over a 5 year period. A number of changes in car use, driving style and engagement in different leisure time activities were found. Cruising was related to an extrovert social life as well as problem behaviours such as drink driving. At the age of 18 cruising was a part of the normal social life of the majority of the participants. However, while most drivers reduced their level of cruising as well as related problem behaviour over time, a smaller group still showed a similar life style at the age of 23. The study confirmed the importance of lifestyle related motivational factors for driving behaviour among young drivers.     

Can friendship serve as an impetus for safe driving among young drivers?

Reckless driving is a key factor in injury and death among young people, especially men, throughout the world. At this developmental stage (ages 17–24), the youngster’s behavior, including driving habits, is strongly influenced by the social discourse. Whereas previous studies have investigated the impact of concepts such as peer pressure and the number of passengers in the car, they have dealt little with the overall social relations that characterize young people, particularly, the nature of their friendships and their reflection in safe versus risky driving.Using qualitative phenomenological methodology, the present study relies on 32 semi-structured in-depth interviews to explore the elements of the relationships among young drivers in the context of driving behavior. Aristotle’s conceptualization of three types of friendship was employed as the interpretative framework. The findings reveal that a young driver’s behavior when driving with friends is associated with the different perceptions of friendship, and is gender and age sensitive. The elements of a friendship of utility (reciprocal interests, practical and beneficial interactions) were connected with safety at all ages and in both genders, and those of a friendship of virtue (responsibility, equality, concern for others) were associated with safe driving among females of all ages and among some of the older male drivers (21–24 years). In contrast, the components of a friendship of pleasure (spending leisure time together, sharing mutual interests) were related to risky and distracted driving, especially among the younger male drivers (17–19 years). It is suggested that interventions might promote safe driving among young people by fostering the positive aspects of their peer relationships.     

Evaluating the effectiveness of a young driver-education intervention: Learn2Live

Road traffic collisions are the leading cause of death among young adults, and behaviour change interventions play a key role in battling this public health concern. Road safety interventions are often educational and have traditionally relied on fear appeals to alter risky driving behaviour - yet there is a paucity of data regarding their effectiveness. Peer-education has been championed as an additional route to promoting safe driving behaviour. To examine these issues, this study evaluated the effectiveness of a fear appeal intervention in improving young drivers’ attitudes towards risky driving behaviour. A total sample of 800 high school and college students (16–20 years old) completed a similar set of questionnaires pre- and post-intervention and at a 3-month follow-up. Two different types of follow-up interventions were also compared: a peer-led and an expert-led road safety educational event. Measures evaluating attitudes towards risky driving behaviour were completed at all 3 time frames, and questions regarding the participants' perception of the follow-up event were asked. Overall, our data showed an improvement in attitudes towards risky driving behaviours both immediately after the intervention and three months later. These changes were especially evident among females. With regard to the follow-ups, both were effective in improving the attitudes towards risky driving. However, the peer-led event was preferred by the participants compared to the expert-led follow-up.     

Sensitivity to reward and risky driving,risky decision making,and risky health behaviour: A literature review

Young driver road safety has persisted as a global problem for decades, despite copious and diverse intervention. Recently the influence in reward sensitivity, which refers to the individual’s personal sensitivity to rewards, has received attention in health-related research, including more generally through decision making in risky circumstances, and in risky driving behaviour specifically. As such, a literature review and synthesis of the literature regarding reward sensitivity in relation to risky driving, risky decision making, and risky health behaviour, with a focus on literature in which adolescents and young adults feature, is timely. Thirty-one papers were identified, and the literature revealed that young drivers with greater reward sensitivity engage in more risky driving behaviours including speeding, crashes and traffic violations; and that individuals with greater reward sensitivity engage in more risky decision making and other risky health-related behaviours (such as drinking and drug use). Adolescents and young adults exhibit heightened sensitivity to rewards in the presence of peers, which has considerable implications for young driver road safety as research consistently demonstrates that carrying peer passengers places all vehicle occupants at greater risk of being involved in a road crash. Consideration of the influence of reward sensitivity in young driver road safety, and other adolescent/young adult health-related safety, appears to be a promising avenue of intervention, with gain-framed messages more likely to be accepted by young drivers with greater reward sensitivity. Future research in jurisdictions other than Australia and Europe will increase our understanding of the influence of reward sensitivity, and exploration of the differential impacts of reward-responsiveness and fun-seeking specifically are warranted.     

Self-concept as a risky driver: Mediating the relationship between racing video games and on-road driving violations in a community-based sample

PurposeThe mediating relationship of self-conceptions as a risky driver on self-reported driving violations was examined for players of “drive’em up” and “circuit” racing video games using an Internet survey of automobile and racing club members. Structural equation modelling (SEM) tested Fischer et al. (2012) extended socio-cognitive model on the effects of risk-glorifying media on cognitions and actions.MethodAn Internet questionnaire was developed and relied upon validated instruments or questions derived from previous surveys. Driver club members were asked about: (1) their frequency of video game playing, (2) self-perceptions as a risky driver and (3) self-reported driving violations. SEM was performed to examine mediating effects of racing video game playing on self-reported driving violations.ResultsPlaying “drive‘em up” video games positively predicted risky self-concept (β = .15, t = 2.26), which in turn, positively predicted driving violations (β = .73, t = 8.63), while playing “circuit racing” games did not predict risky self-concept, although risky self-concept did predict driving violations (β = .72, t = 8.67).ConclusionsSelf-concept as a risky driver mediated the relationship between racing video game playing and self-reported driving violations for “drive’em up”, but not for “circuit racing” video games. These findings are congruent with Fischer and colleagues’ experimental model that self-concept as a reckless driver mediated the relationship between racing video game playing for “drive’em up”, but not for “circuit racing” games and risk-taking behavior in a video of road traffic scenarios.     

The role of cultural factors and attitudes for pedestrian behaviour in an urban Turkish sample

There is a limited number of studies that examine the role of cultural factors and attitudes related to pedestrian behaviour. The aim of this study was to explore the role of cultural variables (i.e. vertical and horizontal collectivism, and individualism, as well as uncertainty avoidance) and attitudes towards pedestrian safety for reported risk-taking pedestrian behaviour in a sample of urban Turkish road users. An additional aim was to test whether the cultural factors had mediated relations to pedestrian behaviour through attitudes towards pedestrian safety. The results are based on an urban Turkish sample (n = 289, response rate = 64%) established in Izmir and Istanbul. The sample consisted of 169 females and 120 males. Their age ranged from 15 to 78 years (M = 32.00, SD = 13.89). A regression analysis showed that the cultural factors added to the explained variance of risky pedestrian behaviour above demographic and exposure-relevant control variables as well as attitudes towards pedestrian safety. Structural Equation Modeling showed that a mediated model had good fit and explained about 60% of the variance in attitudes towards pedestrian safety and 24% in pedestrian behaviour. Within this model, vertical collectivism related to lower levels of pedestrian risk-taking behaviour, while horizontal collectivism was related to higher levels of risk-taking behaviour. As expected, safe attitudes were related to lower levels of risk-taking pedestrian behaviour. The results are discussed in relation to hierarchy and authority orientations facilitated by the specific cultural factors and how such tendencies may relate to pedestrian risk-taking behaviour.     

Investigating the motivational factors influencing drivers intentions to unsafe driving behaviours: Speeding and overtaking violations

Achieving road safety depends on driver attitudes and behaviours in handling the vehicle on roads. The availability of good road, improvement of vehicle designs and drivers experience lead to reduction in crashes but not prevention of crashes. The study aims to predict the drivers’ intentions towards speeding and overtaking violations when under the influence of motivational factors using belief measure of TPB and DBQ variables. To achieve this, questionnaires were randomly administered to a sample of Ghanaian drivers (N = 354) who held valid driving licenses. This study applied regression techniques. The result shows that the components of TPB and DBQ variables were able to predict drivers’ intentions towards speeding and overtaking violations. The study further shows that components of TPB made larger contributions to the prediction of divers’ intentions to speeding and overtaking than the DBQ. Further analysis revealed that, in the prediction of drivers’ intentions, speeding attitude was the most frequent violations compared to overtaking. The drivers tend to involved in overtaking violations when they perceived the driving motivations would enhance the performance of the behaviour. Additionally, control belief has been the strongest predictor of drivers’ intentions under the influence of motivations to speeding and overtaking violations. It appeared that the drivers who intended to involve in speeding and overtaking violations had strong beliefs in the factors and are more likely to violate based on their beliefs. The practical implications of the findings for the development of interventions to promote road safety and positive changes are also discussed.     

The value of self-report measures as indicators of driving behaviors among young drivers

Although much of the knowledge in transportation psychology has been gained by means of self-report measures, there is still a dispute regarding the usefulness and validity of such instruments. This series of two studies employed multivariate statistical models to examine associations between self-report and objective measures in two samples of young drivers. Study 1 (n = 151) compared scores on the Multidimensional Driving Style Inventory (MDSI), a self-report questionnaire tapping four broad driving styles, with the naturalistic driving recorded by an in-vehicle data recorder (IVDR). Study 2 (n = 80) compared responses to the Reckless Driving Habits Scale, assessing the frequency with which drivers commit a set of risky behaviors, with driving measures collected by a simulator. This study also examined the personality trait of sensation seeking, as well as gender and driving experience. In Study 1, the analysis revealed positive associations between high scores on the risky and hostile driving styles measured by the MDSI and risky behaviors measured by the IVDR, as well as inverse correlations between the latter and high MDSI scores on the anxious and careful driving styles. Similarly, in Study 2 associations were found between the self-reported frequency of reckless driving habits and several risky behaviors measured by the driving simulator. In addition, risky behaviors correlated with the sociodemographic variables and sensation seeking. The two studies therefore show that self-report measures are reliable tools for assessing driving behaviors for purposes of research, evaluation, and intervention.     

Relationships amongst psychological determinants,risk behaviour,and road crashes of young adolescent pedestrians and cyclists: Implications for road safety education programmes

Road safety education (RSE) assumes that psychological determinants predict risk behaviour, and subsequently that risky road behaviour predicts crash involvement. This study examined the validity of this assumption, by analysing these relationships in two age groups of teen cyclists and pedestrians: a younger age group (12 and 13 years old: n = 1372) and an older age group (14–16 years old: n = 938). A questionnaire was administered at school during regular class consisting of items on demographics, on risk behaviour based on the Generic Error Model System (GEMS), on psychological determinants targeted in RSE programmes, and on crash involvement and near crashes. For the younger age group, the results indicated that the risk behaviours ‘errors’, ‘dangerous play’, and ‘lack of protective behaviour’ predicted self-reported crashes; for the older age group only ‘errors’ were found to be predictive of self-reported crashes and near crashes. Path analyses confirmed that risk behaviour could be predicted from the psychological determinants, sharing respectively 44% of the variance in the younger age group and 34% in the older group. In conclusion, these results confirm the RSE assumption that psychological determinants are associated with a higher frequency of risk behaviours and that the latter are again associated with higher crash frequencies. Just as in earlier studies on adolescent risk behaviour, the GEMS based distinction between errors and violations was not confirmed, suggesting that this distinction – derived from studies on adult car drivers – may not apply to young adolescent cyclists and pedestrians.     

Young male drivers’ risky driving 15 months after licensure – The role of intervention,attitudes towards accompanied driving,and parents’ risk

An indispensable issue in contemporary research on risk-taking by young drivers is parents’ influence on their offspring’s driving behavior. The current study measures this influence by using a risk index of parents’ driving behavior measured via in-vehicle data recorders together with young drivers’ self-reported answers to a set of questionnaires. Both parents and young drivers participated in one of three intervention program groups to enhance safe driving within a longitudinal study, and the outcome of this intervention was measured 15 months following licensure. The aim of the current study was thus to assess the contribution of parents’ actual driving behavior, participation in the intervention, and teen drivers’ attitudes towards accompanied driving (measured six months after licensure), to the reported risky driving of the young drivers fifteen months after receiving their driving license. The data consist of a sample of 78 parent-young driver dyads who were originally randomly assigned to one of three intervention groups (receiving different forms of feedback) or a control group (with no feedback). Findings indicate that the feedback and training to parents intervention group, as well as parents’ risky driving events rate, were positively associated with the reported proneness to reckless driving and the reckless driving habits of the young drivers. In addition, lower perception of accompanied driving as enabling a sense of relatedness with parents, and higher negative perceptions of this period, were related to higher reported risky driving among young drivers fifteen months after licensure. The results highlight the importance of parents’ behavior and relationships with their offspring as key concepts in moderating risky driving among young drivers. Practical implications for road safety are discussed.     

The influence of sensitivity to reward and punishment, propensity for sensation seeking, depression, and anxiety on the risky behaviour of novice drivers: a path model

Young novice drivers are significantly more likely to be killed or injured in car crashes than older, experienced drivers. Graduated driver licensing (GDL), which allows the novice to gain driving experience under less-risky circumstances, has resulted in reduced crash incidence; however, the driver's psychological traits are ignored. This paper explores the relationships between gender, age, anxiety, depression, sensitivity to reward and punishment, sensation-seeking propensity, and risky driving. Participants were 761 young drivers aged 17-24 (M=19.00, SD=1.56) with a Provisional (intermediate) driver's licence who completed an online survey comprising socio-demographic questions, the Impulsive Sensation Seeking Scale, Kessler's Psychological Distress Scale, the Sensitivity to Punishment and Sensitivity to Reward Questionnaire, and the Behaviour of Young Novice Drivers Scale. Path analysis revealed depression, reward sensitivity, and sensation-seeking propensity predicted the self-reported risky behaviour of the young novice drivers. Gender was a moderator; and the anxiety level of female drivers also influenced their risky driving. Interventions do not directly consider the role of rewards and sensation seeking, or the young person's mental health. An approach that does take these variables into account may contribute to improved road safety outcomes for both young and older road users.     

A gender role socialization model of explicit and implicit biases in driving self-enhancement

We present a gender role socialization model of explicit and implicit biases in driving self-enhancement. The model proposes that men’s higher levels of driving self-enhancement (relative to women) results from socialization experiences, such as those that idealize driving skill and risk taking as core aspects of male identity. This socialization process produces reasoned explicit (declarative or propositional) associations, but also implicit (automatic, non-conscious) associations between masculinity and driving self-enhancement, and these two processes are theorized to operate relatively independently. Structural Equation Modeling of a large sample of young male (n = 200) and female (n = 200) drivers supported the model, and indicated that (a) gender role identification fully mediated the effect of gender on driving self-enhancement and (b) that this effect occurred simultaneously but relatively independently in both explicit or reasoned belief structures and also in implicit non-conscious associations assessed using the Implicit Association Test. The origins of gender differences in traffic safety behaviour and the implications of our model for shifting conceptions of what it means to be a “real man” with regard to driver behaviour are discussed.