个体依恋特征的二重性：特质性依恋与状态性依恋

传统依恋理论认为个体依恋心理和行为模式具有相对稳定性, 但无论在信息加工还是个体发展过程中, 个体依恋模式均表现出二重性, 即既具有相对稳定性, 又具有情境敏感性。个体在情境中所表现出的依恋模式是个体相对稳定的特质性依恋和情境特征相互作用的结果。依恋启动研究中特质性依恋特征与依恋启动效应之间的交互作用模式为理解依恋二重特征及其关系提供了窗口。依恋系统激活的两阶段模型为整合和解释这些相互作用模式提供了框架。未来研究应优化依恋二重特征关系研究中启动效应的操作检验, 考虑依恋焦虑和回避维度的交互作用, 关注高焦虑群体内的依恋差异, 以理析依恋二重特征之间的相互作用方式, 同时关注依恋策略影响依恋启动效应的时间进程, 探究依恋二重特征相互作用的机制。     

Transmission of attachment across three generations

A low-risk Finnish sample (N _total = 135) of parents expecting their first child and maternal grandmothers was followed from pregnancy until the child was 3 years old. The Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) was used to assess attachment in mothers during the last trimester of pregnancy, and maternal grandmothers. The Strange Situation Procedure (SSP) was used to assess attachment in infants at 12 months, and the Preschool Assessment of Attachment (PAA) at 3 years. Mothers' AAI classifications (3-category) during pregnancy predicted infants' SSP classifications (3-category) in 76% of cases, and the 3-year-old children's PAA classifications (3-category) in 58% of cases. Grandmothers' AAI classifications predicted infants' SSP classifications in 48% of cases, but the 3-year-old children's PAA classifications in 72% of cases. Using log-linear analysis, it was shown that a simple model accounted for transmission of attachment across three generations when the children were 3 years. Even though the results indicated continuity across generations, the correspondences were slightly weaker than those obtained by Benoit and Parker in their 3-generational study. The results are discussed in terms of the prototype view, the rapid contextual changes seen across 3 generations in Finland, the size of the sample, and the comparability of the DMM to other assessment methods of attachment.     

Fathers' and mothers' attachment representations as predictors of preadolescents' attachment security: A ten‐year follow‐up of Finnish families

The question of how mothers' and fathers' representations of attachment correlate ten years later with children's perceptions of attachment relationships was examined in a longitudinal study on Finnish families (N = 42). The parents completed the Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) during the child's first year of life. At 11 years, the children filled out three scales on how secure they perceive the relationship with each parent. Parents' AAI classifications and AAI dimensions based on continuous scales were used as predictors of the preadolescents' attachment security. Regression analyses demonstrated that fathers' but not mothers' State‐of‐Mind and Experience dimensions predicted preadolescents' security of attachment to father. The discussion focuses on the predictive validity of the classical categorical versus the recently proposed continuous approach and the different roles of parents in transmitting security from one generation to another.     

Observing mother-child relationships across generations: boundary patterns,attachment, and the transmission of caregiving

Grounded in both attachment and family systems theories, this study is one of the first to examine how relationship patterns observed in mothers' current relationships with their own mothers are recreated in their relationships with their infants. Mostly white, middle-class families (N = 55), including maternal grandmothers, mothers, and infants, were observed when infants were 6, 9, and 18 months old. At 6 months, mothers and grandmothers completed self-report assessments and worked together on discussion tasks. These interactions were coded using the Boundary Assessment Coding System, developed for the present study, which assessed three relational patterns: disengagement, balance, and entanglement. At 9 months, mothers were rated on sensitivity and intrusiveness while playing with and feeding their infants; and, at 18 months, infant-mother attachment was assessed using the Strange Situation. Multiple regression analyses revealed, as predicted, that mothers who remembered being accepted by their mothers as children and who were in highly balanced relationships with their own mothers currently were more sensitive and less intrusive with their 9-month-old infants. Further, discriminant function analyses indicated that memories of acceptance, high levels of balance, and low levels of disengagement differentiated secure from insecure attachment, whereas memories of overprotection and high levels of entanglement distinguished resistant from secure and avoidant attachment. Discussion focuses on the theoretical hypothesis that mothers internalize relationship strategies experienced with their own caregivers and recreate these patterns with their infants.     

The boundaries between attachment and personality: Associations across three levels of the attachment network

This research examined the associations between measures of sociotropic and autonomous personality, romantic attachment anxiety and avoidance, and corresponding attachment ratings across a range of different specific relationships with people whom participants regularly interacted (including romantic partners, friends, family members, and colleagues). Analyses using hierarchical linear modeling showed that sociotropy and autonomy were directly associated with respective ratings of relationship-specific anxiety and avoidance within non-romantic relationships. In contrast, domain-specific romantic attachment predicted relationship-specific attachment with romantic (but not non-romantic) partners, and, as hypothesized, mediated the associations between sociotropy and autonomy and relationship-specific attachment within this domain. Implications for the operationalization of sociotropy and autonomy as broad-bandwidth (personality-level) measures that assess more global summaries of regularities in the same dual dimensions identified in the attachment literature (i.e., attachment anxiety and avoidance) are discussed.     

安全依恋对人际信任的影响:依恋焦虑的调节效应

采用两个实验探讨了安全依恋启动对人际信任的影响,并考察了特质依恋风格的调节效应。实验1采用回忆书写任务启动安全依恋,采用3(启动分组:安全依恋启动,积极情绪启动,中性启动)×3(目标词类型:信任相关词,信任无关词,非词)混合实验设计考察了不同启动分组对信任词汇反应时的影响。结果发现,与积极情绪启动组和中性启动组相比,安全依恋启动能显著提高信任的词汇决策反应时,特质依恋焦虑起调节效应。实验2采用被试间设计,考察安全依恋启动对信任博弈任务中信任决策的影响,结果发现,安全依恋启动组被试在信任决策中分配的金额显著高于中性组被试,特质依恋焦虑起调节效应。研究结果验证了安全依恋对人际信任的"拓延–建构环"效应,对于促进社会信任的提升具有积极的现实意义。     

Adult attachment and Mindfulness: Examining directionality,causality, and theoretical implications

We present two studies that together provide preliminary evidence to challenge the view that the relationship between adult attachment and mindfulness is bi-directional (Study 1: repeated measures design and Study 2: a repeated measures study examining the efficacy of attachment security priming and a mindfulness induction). Adult attachment anxiety emerged as a significant predictor of some facets of mindfulness, over time, but the reverse was not true. Priming attachment security increased state mindfulness of mind to a greater degree than a mindfulness induction or control. These findings challenge previous research suggesting that the relationship between adult attachment and mindfulness is bi-directional, suggesting that attachment orientation plays a causal role in the development of mindfulness.     

经济态度和行为的代际传递现象及机制

经济态度和行为存在从父母向孩子的代际传递现象, 经济态度代际传递的研究内容较为广泛, 包括金钱态度、风险态度、互惠态度和消费态度, 经济行为代际传递的研究主要集中在消费行为、捐赠行为和储蓄行为三个方面。除了遗传路径, 其代际传递有两条社会化路径: 孩子对父母的观察学习和亲子互动, 其中亲子互动包含亲子沟通和财务教养两个层面, 亲子沟通强调语言层面的互动, 而财务教养强调行为层面的互动, 但是财务教养的研究仅停留在表面, 缺乏深入的剖析。未来需要加强中国文化和现实背景下的代际传递现象研究, 并深入探讨其机制。     

Angry and aggressive behavior across three generations: a prospective,longitudinal study of parents and children

This investigation examined intergenerational continuities in both angry, aggressive parenting and also the angry, aggressive behavior of children and adolescents. Data from 75 G2 youth (26 men, 49 women, M = 22-years old), their mothers (G1), and their G3 children (47 boys, 28 girls, M = 2.4-years old) were included in the analyses. The prospective, longitudinal design of the study, which included observational and multiinformant measures, overcame many of the methodological limitations found in much of the earlier research on intergenerational transmission. The results demonstrated a direct connection between observed G1 aggressive parenting and observed G2 aggressive parenting from 5 to 7 years later. G2 aggressive behavior as an adolescent and G3 aggressive behavior as a child were related to parenting behavior but not directly to one another. The results were consistent with a social learning perspective on intergenerational continuities in angry and aggressive behaviors.     

The intergenerational transmission of social dominance: A three‐generation study

This study examined the transmission of social dominance orientation (SDO) from parents and grandparents to children. It was predicted that parents as well as grandparents would pass their social dominance attitudes to children. Children's levels of SDO would thus be the highest when parental and grandparental attitudes are high; the lowest when parental and grandparental attitudes are low; and intermediate when parental and grandparental attitudes are incongruent. These hypotheses were examined in a sample of 93 families including children (in early adulthood), one of their parents, and one of their grandparents. Results yielded support for the predictions. These findings' implications are discussed in terms of their potential to explain previous inconsistent results on the transmission of social attitudes to children. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Grandchildren's perspectives on relationships with grandparents: The influence of gender across generations

The study examines the relation between gender of grandchildren, parents and grandparents and grandchild-grandparent relationships. Subjects were 120 young adult grandchildren (ages 18–23) who provided information on the 375 grandparents they had known. Subjects reported how close they felt to their grandparents, how much they liked them, and what activities they engaged in with them. Strong effects were found for sex of grandparent and sex of parent. Grandchildren had closer relationships with grandmothers, particularly maternal grandmothers, and they tended to prefer maternal grandmothers over other grandparents. Maternal grandmothers seem to make themselves particularly accessible to grandchildren. The results suggest that the gender of the grandparent can be more important than proximity in determining the quality of grandchild-grandparent relationships.An earlier version of this paper was presented in March of 1986 at the annual meeting of the Southwestern Society for Research in Human Development. The authors thanks Richard Wenzlaff for his assistance in the analysis of the data, Billy Hoover for his assistance in collecting and coding the data, and Judith Loftus for her comments on earlier drafts of the paper.     

The relationship between sensory responsiveness profiles,attachment orientations,and anxiety symptoms

Individual variations in the way people respond to sensory stimuli can sometimes lead to maladaptive representations of the world. Indeed, sensory responsiveness profiles were found to be associated with mood symptoms such as depression and anxiety. The goal of the current study was to investigate whether attachment orientations can account for the relationship between sensory responsiveness profiles and anxiety symptoms. Participants (N = 194) completed a battery of questionnaires assessing sensory responsiveness profiles, attachment orientations, and anxiety symptoms. As expected, various associations between sensory responsiveness profiles and anxiety symptoms were accounted for by attachment anxiety and avoidance. We suggest a possible causal path, in which early‐developing sensory responsiveness profiles lead to attachment insecurities, which in turn may lead to mood symptoms such as anxiety.     

依恋启动及其效应

认知革命背景下, 依恋研究出现了社会认知转向, 研究兴趣正在从关注依恋个体差异转向差异背后的依恋图式, 研究范式也从观察测量转向以启动为代表的精细测量实验范式。依恋启动实验范式分为安全启动和不安全启动, 启动材料会激活不同依恋图式, 促使个体分别采用安全依恋策略、过度激活或抑制激活策略, 进而表现出不同的心理和行为模式, 而这些模式又会调节启动效应, 形成动态的启动反馈回路。未来研究应对依恋图式的成分、结构进一步细化, 关注依恋焦虑与依恋启动的关系, 并从加工时间进程视角探究依恋启动对后续认知加工过程的影响。     

Intergenerational transmission: The individuation process and the capacity for intimacy of adult children of holocaust survivors

This article deals with the intergenerational processes of adult children of Holocaust surviors. By exploring their level of individuation from the parental family and their capacity for intimacy with spouses, the research findings reveal that: Adult children of survivors are emotionally more interconnected to their parents than are their counterparts (using the MIS). Adult children of survivors have a lower intimacy capacity with their spouses in comparison with the control group. These findings are explained from an intergenerational perspective regarding a post-traumatic population.Received PhD from University of Wisconsin-Madison. Current research in the individuation process throughout adulthood, and the post-traumatic effect of Holocaust survivors.     

The role of the mother's voice in developing mother's face preference: Evidence for intermodal perception at birth

Four experiments are described which investigated the role of the mother's voice in facilitating recognition of the mother's face at birth. Experiment 1 replicated our previous findings (Br. J. Dev. Psychol. 1989; 7: 3–15; The origins of human face perception by very young infants. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Glasgow, Scotland, UK, 1990) indicating a preference for the mother's face when a control for the mother's voice and odours was used only during the testing. A second experiment adopted the same procedures, but controlled for the mother's voice from birth through testing. The neonates were at no time exposed to their mother's voice. Under these conditions, no preference was found. Further, neonates showed only few head turns towards both the mother and the stranger during the testing. Experiment 3 looked at the number of head turns under conditions where the newborn infants were exposed to both the mother's voice and face from birth to 5 to 15 min prior to testing. Again, a strong preference for the mother's face was demonstrated. Such preference, however, vanished in Experiment 4, when neonates had no previous exposure to the mother's voice–face combination. The conclusion drawn is that a prior experience with both the mother's voice and face is necessary for the development of face recognition, and that intermodal perception is evident at birth. The neonates' ability to recognize the face of the mother is most likely to be rooted in prenatal learning of the mother's voice. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The relationship between romantic and prenatal maternal attachment: The moderating role of social support

The aim of this study was to examine the relationships between three types of maternal attachment bonds: anxious romantic, avoidant romantic and prenatal. The moderating role of perceived social support is also analysed. Ninety-one pregnant women in or near their thirtieth week of gestation (M = 29.59; SD = 4.57) were recruited, all of whom completed a series of questionnaires to assess the quality of their romantic and prenatal attachment bonds and their levels of perceived social support. The results reveal that both anxious and avoidant romantic attachments were significantly associated with low levels of maternal prenatal attachment. Moreover, the level of social support perceived during pregnancy moderated the relationship between anxious and prenatal attachments but had no effect on avoidant romantic and prenatal attachments. Our discussion of these findings considers the emotional and behavioural characteristics of various forms of insecure romantic attachments. Overall, the data highlight the relevance of the quality of intimate close relationships on maternity experiences and women's caregiving abilities.     

Sibling attachment: The development of a new infant-based measure (SPPIR)

This paper describes a new infant-based measure for assessing infant attachment to a sibling during a modified strange situation procedure. Research has demonstrated that young siblings often form a special relationship and that they prefer to interact with one another rather than with an unfamiliar peer. Also it has been shown that older siblings can respond appropriately to the distress of an infant. Research on relationships has moved from frequency counts of discrete behaviours towards more global measures of the ways in which behaviour is organized. These have tended to focus upon the older child as caregiver or the influence of the mother-child relationship on child-child interaction during the strange situation. The main findings of previous studies are presented. This paper describes a new method for measuring sibling attachment. Advantages of the new scoring system over previous procedures are that it utilizes ethological attachment theory, it is infant-based, it allows for a variety of infant reactions to reunion with the older sibling, and it focuses on overall patterns of behaviour rather than tallies of frequences.     

情节模拟对预期伴侣反应性及依恋安全感的影响

当依恋对象不在身边时,个体可以通过内部表征的方式通达依恋对象的可得与反应性,获得依恋安全感。然而,现有研究对内部表征通达途径的考察忽略了情节模拟的作用。该研究采用实验组控制组前后测设计,考察是否可以通过依恋相关的情节模拟通达依恋对象的可得与反应性,帮助个体获得依恋安全感。研究招募正处于恋爱关系中且恋爱时长超过6个月的大学生46名。前测评定依恋相关的困境情境;3天后实验组被试进行依恋相关的情节模拟任务,控制组被试进行情境结果的撰写任务,并再次对情境进行评定。结果发现,相比于控制组,情节模拟组预期伴侣的反应性和依恋安全感有更大提升。以上的研究结果表明,依恋相关的情节模拟可以通达伴侣可得与反应性并帮助个体获得依恋安全感。     

Mothers' attachment representations and choice of infant care: center care vs. home

In the debate concerning the effects of day care on infant development, insufficient attention has been paid to the potential relationship between pre‐existing emotional differences among mothers and the type of care they choose for their infants. To shed light on this issue, this study examines the attachment representations of mothers who choose day‐care centres as opposed to mothers who choose to remain at home with their infants. Participants were 76 primiparous mothers. Mothers' attachment classifications were assessed by the Adult Attachment Interview [AAI; Main M, Kaplan N, Cassidy J. 1985. Security in infancy, childhood, and adulthood: a move to the level of representation. In Growing Points of Attachment Theory and Research. Monograph of the Society for Research in Child Development, 50, (1–2, serial no. 209), Bretherton I, Waters E (eds); 66–104]. Results indicate that more Day‐care than Home‐Care mothers are classified as insecurely attached. These results highlight the contribution of maternal emotional characteristics to the effects of diverse child care arrangements on infant development. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Cognitive modifiability as a function of mother–child mediated learning strategies,mothers' acceptance–rejection,and children's personality

This study investigated (a) the effects of mediated learning experience (MLE) in mother–child interactions on cognitive modifiability as measured by dynamic assessment, (b) the effects of mothers' acceptance–rejection towards their children and the children's personality on the mothers' MLE strategies, (c) the combined effects of the mothers' acceptance–rejection, children's personality, and MLE strategies on children's cognitive modifiability, and (d) the prediction of cognitive modifiability by MLE interactions in two distinct conditions: free-play and structured. Fifty-four mother–child dyads (26 boys and 28 girls) in grade 2 were videotaped interacting in two situations: free-play and structured. The interactions were analysed with observation of mediation instrument using five criteria: intentionality and reciprocity, transcendence, meaning, feelings of competence, and regulation of behaviour. The children were administered the parent acceptance–rejection questionnaire, the personality assessment questionnaire, and the children's inferential thinking modifiability test. A distal–proximal factors of cognitive modifiability model was used to explain causal paths among mothers' acceptance–rejection and children's personality (distal) on MLE (proximal), and of both on children's cognitive modifiability. A structural equation model analysis revealed that (a) all MLE criteria were predicted by the distal factors of mothers' acceptance–rejection and children's personality, (b) none of the mothers' attitudes or children's personality factors explained the children's cognitive factors, (c) MLE criteria of transcendence and regulation of behaviour explained the children's CITM-post-teaching score but not the CITM-pre-teaching score. The results are discussed in relation to Feuerstein's MLE theory and Tzuriel's previous results with preschool children. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.