Interdependence,social motives,and outcome satisfaction in multiparty negotiation

What makes negotiators satisfied with their outcomes? In this study, we examined whether interpersonal interdependence, in the context of multi‐party multi‐issue negotiation, affected negotiators' satisfaction with their individual and group outcomes. We integrated principles from interdependence, social comparison, and social value theories to generate hypotheses about the social‐evaluative nature of satisfaction with negotiation outcomes. Controlling for differences in quality of individual outcomes, we found a positive association between satisfaction and individual outcome and a negative association between satisfaction and group outcome. Relative to those with prosocial social value orientation, negotiators with an individualistic social value orientation were less satisfied with the group outcome, regardless of induced motivational orientation. Neither motivational orientation nor an interaction between motivational orientation and social value orientation were related to satisfaction. We discuss the implications of our results for research on interdependence processes in negotiations and the role of social motives. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Relationships,Environment, and the Brain: How Emerging Research is Changing What We Know about the Impact of Families on Human Development

Recent research is providing family therapists with new information about the complex interaction between an individual's biological makeup and his/her social and physical environment. Family and social relationships, particularly during sensitive periods early in life, can affect a child's biological foundation. Additionally, stress during the early years can have a lasting effect on an individual's physical and mental health and contribute to the onset of severe mental illness. Community programs have been developed to intervene early with families who have an at‐risk child to prevent or minimize the onset of mental illness including providing partnerships with at‐risk mothers of infants to shape attachment relationships. Programs are also developing individual and family interventions to prevent the onset of psychosis. Practicing family therapists can incorporate emerging neuroscience and early intervention research and leverage the growing base of community programs to enhance the effectiveness and sustainability of mental health outcomes for clients. Additionally, family therapy education programs should broaden student training to incorporate the growing body of information about how family relationships affect individual mental health development.     

Recombinant values

An attractive admirer of George Bernard Shaw once wrote to himwith a not-so modest proposal: ``You have the greatest brain in theworld, and I have the most beautiful body; so we ought to producethe most perfect child.'' Shaw replied: ``What if the child inherits mybody and your brains?'' What if, indeed? Shaw's retort is interesting not because it revealsa grasp of elementary genetics, but rather because it suggests his graspof an interesting and important principle of axiology. Since the brainybut ugly Shaw and his beautiful but apparently dim admirer both fallshort of the ideal, she suggests that the best thing would be togenetically recombine his intelligence with her beauty. But what thenwould be the value of another genetic possibility: that of recombininghis ugliness with her stupidity? Underlining the prompted inference is afundamental principle of the theory of value which, perhapssurprisingly, has so far gone largely unnoticed in the ethicalliterature. I will call it the principle of recombinantvalues. It is the purpose of this paper to formulate the principle in a waywhich makes its content obvious and accessible; to motivate theprinciple philosophically; to both disentangle it from, and exhibitits relations to, principles of evaluative reasoning; to show howthis purely qualitative principle meshes with the infamous thesis ofadditivity of value; and finally, to use it to ground a rathersimple but quite general theory of the intrinsic value ofstates.     

A Primer of the Values Implicit in Counseling Research Methods

The author attempts to answer 5 related questions: What are implicit values? Why are these values often considered problematic to traditional science? Why are such values necessary to research? What are the main values of traditional methods in psychology? What are the implications of a value‐laden science?     

Personal values and immigrant group appraisal as predictors of voluntary contact with immigrants among majority students in Israel

What predicts whether young people will establish contacts with immigrants? Students are at a pivotal point in which the campus environment can enable substantial contact with immigrants, and where world views and behavioural patterns are formed which can follow through their adult lives. Through a value‐attitude‐behavior paradigm we examine a conceptual model in which appraisal of an immigrant group as a threat and/or benefit to the host society mediates the relationship between personal values and contact. Findings among 252 students in Israel showed that (1) threat/benefit appraisal of immigrants predicted voluntary contact; (2) personal values of self‐direction and hedonism directly predicted voluntary contact; and (3) Threat/benefit appraisal mediated the relationship between self‐direction and power and contact. Results suggest that increasing awareness of benefits of immigrants can promote positive inter‐group relations.     

THEOLOGY AND SCIENCE OF MENTAL HEALTH AND WELL‐BEING

The approach to mental health and well‐being taken here illustrates the complementary perspectives approach and assumes that there are useful and intersecting contributions from science (including medicine) and from religion and spirituality. What counts as poor mental well‐being depends on the interaction of relatively objective criteria with culturally contingent value judgments. I then discuss theological perspectives on depression, including a consideration of sources of hope and tolerance of dysphoria, and argue that depression can be part of a spiritual journey. I then look at the relationship between psychosis and religion, including the work of Isabel Clarke, arguing that a spiritual approach to psychosis can complement a medical approach. Finally, I present a pastoral case study illustrating the interface between neurological and spiritual aspects of the sense of presence. A religious perspective can challenge and complement current assumptions about mental health in a potentially fruitful way.     

Convergence and divergence of individual‐level values: A study of Malaysian managers

Malaysia is a multi‐ethnic country with Malay, Chinese and Indian being the dominant ethnic groups. This paper investigates the three ethnic cultures in Malaysia by examining the individual‐level values of managers and professionals. Based on 528 responses to a Schwartz Value Survey (SVS) questionnaire, the paper identifies partial convergence of the value systems of Malay, Chinese and Indian people. It was found that the three ethnic groups do not differ significantly in the individualistic value dimensions of Self‐enhancement and Openness‐to‐change. However, Malays are found to be more conservative and less self‐transcendent than Chinese or Indians, while Chinese and Indians attribute the same importance to these two sets of values.     

Pride and punishment: Entitled people's self‐promoting values motivate hierarchy‐restoring retribution

What is the purpose of punishment? The current research shows that for entitled people—those with inflated self‐worth—justice is about maintaining societal hierarchies. Entitled people more strongly hold self‐enhancing values (power and achievement; Studies 1 and 3). They are also more likely, when thinking about justice for offenders, to adopt a hierarchy‐based justice orientation: Perceptions that crime threatens hierarchies, motives to restore those hierarchies, and support for retribution (Studies 2 and 3). Further, the relationship of entitlement to justice orientation is mediated by self‐enhancing values when entitlement is measured (Study 3) and manipulated (Studies 4, 5 and 6). Together these studies suggest that entitlement—and the resultant preoccupation with one's status—facilitates a view of justice as a hierarchy‐based transaction: one where criminal offenders and their victims exchange power and status. These findings reveal the self‐enhancing and hierarchy‐focused nature of entitlement, as well as the roots of retribution in concerns about status, power, and hierarchies.     

Different selves,different values: Effects of self‐construals on value activation and use

Three experiments demonstrated structural properties and dynamic effects of self‐construal on the processing and use of values. In Study 1, it was found that self‐focus during encoding caused spontaneous cognitive clustering of individualistic versus relational values. Study 2 demonstrated that self‐construal affected the implicit weight of a value‐related attribute in a multi‐attribute choice task. In Study 3, behavioral intentions were better predicted by personal values than social norms when the personal self was primed, whereas social norms predicted better when the collective self was primed. The effects of manipulated self‐construal were mimicked when comparing participants with an individualistic versus collectivistic cultural background. No interaction was found between priming and cultural background. Taken together, the studies demonstrated that different domains of the self are associated with different values, which may instigate different cognitive and behavioral processes when activated. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Human values and non‐adherence to doctors' instructions across Europe

This study examines the relationships between human values and patient non‐adherence. Two types of non‐adherence are studied: non‐adherent views and non‐adherent behavior in response to doctor's instructions. The study uses data from the European Social Survey Round 2 from 14 countries: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Iceland, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Sweden, and Switzerland. Correlation analyses and multiple logistic regression analyses were conducted both using the pooled data from these 14 countries and within countries. The sample size ranged from n = 20,012 to n = 21,600 in the analyses of pooled data. Human values were found to be associated with non‐adherence. As hypothesized, endorsing openness‐to‐change values (vs. conservation values) was positively related to non‐adherent views and behavior.     

Parents' child‐rearing values and beliefs in the United States and Russia: the impact of culture and social class

Parents' values for their children and their beliefs about appropriate child‐rearing practices contribute to the ways in which they try to shape their children's development. This paper examines the values and beliefs of 71 parents (37 mothers and 34 fathers) from two cities in the United States and Russia. Half of the families were middle class (determined by education and occupation criteria) and half were working class. The results revealed no cross‐societal differences in value for self‐direction in the children; perhaps reflecting the recent economic and ideological changes in Russia. In contrast, significant social class differences, for both mothers and fathers, were found in child‐rearing values and beliefs. Middle class parents in both societies were more likely to value self‐direction and believe that children should have freedom in and around the home, whereas working class parents were more likely to believe that children should be expected to conform to rules. The results of this study underscore the role of within‐society heterogeneity, as a function of social class, in parents' values and beliefs about child‐rearing.     

Universal Plotkinism: A Review Of Henry Plotkin’s Darwin Machines And The Nature of Knowledge

Plotkin's Darwin Machines and the Nature of Knowledge (1993) is a major contribution to the field of evolutionary epistemology and universal Darwinism. Evolutionary epistemology is the idea that evolution is a knowledge‐gaining process. Universal Darwinism holds that processes of variation and selection can be observed at different levels from the primary level of biological evolution (where genes code for phenotypes) through to individual learning and culture (where the units of variation and selection are not so clear cut). Although antithetical to behaviorism, large parts of Plotkin's thesis can be recast in nonmentalistic terms and exploited by behavior analysts. In particular, Plotkin's arguments for a strong commonality of process between biological evolution and individual learning offer directions for progress on questions that have long interested behavior analysts, such as: Why do some organisms learn? How did learning evolve? What is the relation between behavior and evolution? Although the paths of connection between evolution and individual behavior that Plotkin sketches are not yet fully clear of confusion, his is undoubtedly a very stimulating direction to explore.     

Person‐Group Value Congruence and Subjective Well‐Being in Students from Argentina,Bulgaria and Finland: The Role of Interpersonal Relationships

The present study examined the relations between personal values, value congruence, interpersonal relationships and subjective well‐being in psychology/education and business students from Argentina (N = 275), Bulgaria (N = 182) and Finland (N = 148). Regression analyses showed, first, that there were no direct relations between higher order value priorities and life satisfaction (LS), positive affect (PA) or negative affect (NA). Second, objective value‐congruence (VC)—the similarity between individual and group values—was positively related to LS and PA, and negatively related to NA. Most importantly, the effects of VC on LS, NA and PA were partially mediated by good interpersonal relationships. Our results show that interpersonal relationships are facilitated by sharing values similar to those of one's fellow students. More generally, personal values per se appear not to be associated with subjective well‐being, more important is how these values fit into the social context. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Does paternalistic leadership promote innovative behavior? The interaction between authoritarianism and benevolence

We theorize about the separate and interactive effects of the two primary elements of paternalistic leadership: authoritarianism and benevolence. Accordingly, we test a mediating mechanism through which these components of paternalistic leadership stimulate employee innovative and knowledge‐sharing behaviors. A multi‐source and multi‐level study involving 302 employee‐supervisor‐peer triads in 60 Chinese technology‐based organizations supported the association between the interaction of benevolent and authoritarian leadership and employee affective trust, innovative behavior, and knowledge sharing. Moreover, affective trust mediated the interaction of benevolence and authoritarianism on employee innovative behavior and knowledge sharing. We suggest that, the two constructs underlying paternalistic leadership might promote employee breakthrough behaviors across cultures. That is, their demanding and yet selfless stance turns authoritarian‐benevolent leaders into prototypes of the followers' aspirational social identity.     

Personal values and prosocial behaviour in strategic interactions: Distinguishing value‐expressive from value‐ambivalent behaviours

Relying on the framework provided by Schwartz's theory of personal values, we investigated whether values can help explain prosocial behaviour. We first distinguished value‐expressive behaviours from value‐ambivalent behaviours. The former are compatible with primarily one value or with congruent values, the latter with mutually conflicting values. In Study 1, an analysis over all 41 (39 unpublished) samples in which we measured personal values and prosocial behaviour in monetarily incentivized strategic interactions (N = 1289; data collected between 2007 and 2010 in China, Finland, Germany, Israel, and the West Bank) supported our idea that personal values, universalism in particular, predict value‐expressive (prisoner's dilemma cooperation and trust game back‐transfers) but not value‐ambivalent behaviours (trust game transfers and ultimatum game proposals and responses). Study 2 (N = 56) focused on dictator game behaviours, which we expected and found to be strongly value‐expressive. The findings contribute to the ongoing discussion on whether and under which circumstances values shape behaviour. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Domestic tasks,gender egalitarian values and children's gender typing in conventional and nonconventional families

Relationships between gender egalitarian values, family lifestyles, and children's gender typing were studied among 156 Euro-American, working to upper middle class nonconventional families, and a comparison sample of 51 two-parent, married couples. Did efforts to alter domestic task allocation in nonconventional countercultural families influence children's gender typing at age six? Children's gender typing scores were not directly related to patterns of task assignment, although they were moderately correlated with parents' gender egalitarian values and nonconventional lifestyles. The nonconventional families tended to have children displaying less stereotyping of male objects, and more non gender-typed responses. These effects were stronger among girls. Household organization (single parent, married or unmarried couple, or commune), regardless of family lifestyle and values, was strongly related to shared vs. more exclusive forms of task assignment. Mothers' egalitarian values also were associated with more shared tasks. The effects of shared domestic tasks in the home on children's gender typing seemed to be indirect, mediated by the child's sex and the meaning parents attached to their task assignment in the home.     

Psychoanalysis is a two‐way street

The paper discusses psychoanalysis as a mutual exchange between the analyst and analysand. A number of questions are raised: What was Ferenczi's and the early psychoanalysts' contribution to the interpersonal relational dynamics of psychoanalytic treatment? Why did countertransference become an indispensable tool in relationship‐based psychoanalysis? Why is the transference‐countertransference dynamic seen as a special dialogue between the analyst and analysand? What was Ferenczi's paradigm shift in the trauma theory? How did he combine the object relation approach with Freud's original trauma theory? The paper illustrates through some case study vignettes the intersubjective and intrapsychic dynamic in the process of traumatization. We can look at countertransference as an indicator of the patient's basic interpersonal experiences and traumas. Finally the paper discusses countertransference in the light of attachment theory, connecting the early initiatives of inter‐relational approaches in psychoanalysis with recent research.     

Empowerment praxis in community coalitions

Community coalitions address a wide variety of community problems, espousing a community development processes that promotes individual and collective self-determination. They offer a promising venue for the study of empowerment of individuals and organizations. This study utilizes data from members of 35 community coalitions organized for the prevention of alcohol and other drug problems to address the following questions: What individual characteristics are related to the psychological empowerment of coalition members? What organizational characteristics are related to the collective empowering of members? What organization characteristics are related to a coalition being organizationally empowered to succeed in achieving its objectives? At the individual level, psychological empowerment was most strongly related to individuals' participation levels, sense of community, and perceptions of a positive organizational climate. At the group level, the strongest predictors of collective empowering (our operationalization of the empowering organization) were net benefits of participation, commitment, and positive organization climate. Psychological empowerment and positive organizational climate were the two predictors of organizational effectiveness (the empowered organization). Implications and limitations of these findings are discussed.