Separated,Divorced, or Widowed Women and Career Choice: The Displaced Homemaker

This article focuses on how displaced homemakers may be helped in adjusting to their recently acknowledged unique problems, which include economic problems, no work experience, changing family roles, and stress.     

Learned Helplessness: A Factor in Counseling for Displaced Homemakers

The author describes the phenomenon of learned helplessness that may affect the ability of displaced homemakers to enter or reenter the work force successfully. Characteristics of helplessness-oriented persons are contrasted with those who are mastery-oriented.     

Career/Life Planning for Displaced Homemakers

This article describes the development, content, and outcome of a highly cost-effective program designed to meet the personal and vocational needs of displaced homemakers. Future research directions are suggested.     

Healing in the Midst of Chaos: Nah We Yone's African Women's Wellness Group

This article discusses the creative use of the group treatment modality to provide psychosocial support to African women refugees and asylum seekers with a history of refugee trauma, war, and human rights abuses who have fled to the United States. In particular, this article describes the African Women's Wellness Group developed by Nah We Yone, Inc., a small grassroots organization in the New York City area. This women's group draws on the tenets of traditional Western group psychotherapy while using African cultural awareness to provide healing. The rationale for this type of treatment, group design, specific techniques used to provide healing, along with various group-related themes and challenges are described. This type of treatment provides an example of the usefulness of group therapy technique with traumatized displaced women struggling to survive in a new cultural setting.     

Cognitive accessibility of sex role concepts and attitudes toward political participation: The impact of sexist advertisements

Women who were exposed to advertisements that portrayed women in their traditional role as homemakers reported less favorable attitudes toward political participation than women who were not exposed to advertisements. Exposure to portrayals of women as sex objects, on the other hand, did not affect women's attitudes. In contrast, men reported less favorable attitudes toward political participation after exposure to advertisements that portrayed women as sex objects, but were not affected by portrayals of women as homemakers. Implications for the influence of sex roles on political participation and the impact of sexist advertisements are discussed.     

Control of Trajectory Modifications in Target-Directed Reaching

Human reaching movements to fixed and displaced visual targets were recorded and compared with simulated movements generated by using a two-joint arm model based on the equilibrium-point (EP) hypothesis (λ model) of motor control (Feldman, 1986). The aim was to investigate the form of central control signals underlying these movements. According to this hypothesis, movements result from changes in control variables that shift the equilibrium position (EP) of the arm. At any time, muscle activations and forces will depend on the difference between the arm's EP and its actual position and on the limb's velocity. In this article, we suggest that the direction of EP shift in reaching is specified at the hand level, whereas the rate of EP shift may be specified at the hand or joint level. A common mechanism underlying reaching to fixed and displaced targets is proposed whereby the EP of the hand shifts in a straight line toward the present target. After the target is displaced, the direction of the hand EP shift is modified toward the second target. The results suggest that the rate of shift of the hand EP may be modified for movements in different parts of the work space. The model, with control signals that vary in a simple fashion over time, is able to generate the kinematic patterns observed empirically.     

Beyond a Paycheck: The Influence of Workforce Participation on Women’s Cancer Screening in Turkey

The present study investigates the influence of workforce participation on women’s cancer screening behaviors in Turkey. In cultures with predominantly Muslim populations like Turkey, emphasis is typically placed on a woman’s traditional role as a child bearer. Although the impact of workforce participation on women’s welfare has been studied in various contexts, the relationship between workforce participation and health protective behavior has received scant attention. Using quantitative data from a survey of women aged 40 and above from 33 urban cities in Turkey (N?=?483), we examine the influence of workforce participation on breast and cervical cancer screening behaviors. Homemakers were less likely than working/retired women to be up-to-date on screenings. Women with lower income and education screened less; however, workforce participation seemed to have a positive effect on screening among these women. Additionally, working/retired women and homemakers differed from each other in terms of their perceptions regarding their risk of developing cancer (perceived susceptibility). In addition, both perceived susceptibility and women's perceptions regarding their ability to get cancer screening (self-efficacy) were significant predictors of intention to engage in screening in future. In Turkey, homemakers are in a vulnerable position due to lower rates of cancer screening. Furthermore, targeting homemakers for interventions may be easier than trying to identify other low screening groups of women such as those with lower education or income. Interventions raising perceptions of susceptibility to cancer, possibly by targeting neighborhoods during working hours, could be useful in increasing screening rates at risk women.     

Need fulfillment in the career development of women

To test Harmon's proposal that Maslow's needs theory can explain differences in women's career decisions, need importance scores of 481 college graduate women of 1968 were contrasted. Since full-time homemakers are dependent upon another person for fulfillment of basic needs (Maslow's security-safety and social needs), it was hypothesized that these needs would remain prepotent and, therefore, would be higher for homemakers than for women employed outside the home. Esteem and self-actualization needs of employed women were expected to be higher for employed women than for homemakers. The results of the analyses generally supported the hypotheses. The major resulting discriminant function contrasted negative weights on basic needs with positive weights on high-level needs. Homemakers scored highest on security-safety and social needs, while professional-managerial and clerical-sales workers scored highest on the esteem need. In an unexpected finding, self-actualization was found to be the highest-ranked need for all groups of women in the study.     

Attitudinal differences between full-time homemakers and women who work outside the home

Data from a national probability sample were used to examine differences in attitudinal variables and self-concept between full-time homemakers (N=485) and women employed outside of the home (N=354). The homemakers held more conservative values and a more traditional view of women's roles, reported experiencing a more supportive family life, expressed lower self-esteem, and were less dissatisfied than women who work outside the home. Women who are employed outside the home rated themselves as more aggressive, ambitious, and intelligent than did homemakers. The discussion focuses on the surprising finding that the women who work outside the home were more dissatisfied than homemakers. Crosby's (Relative Deprivation and Working Women, New York: Oxford University Press, 1982) model of relative deprivation, which emphasizes wanting and deserving as preconditions of felt deprivation, helps explain the dissatisfaction among women employed outside the home.We thank the research department of Leo Burnett Company, especially Melody Douglas-Tate, vice-president and group research director, for making this project possible. Thanks also to an anonymous reviewer for helpful comments and suggestions.     

Representational momentum contributes to motion induced mislocalization of stationary objects

The influence of a moving target on memory for the location of a briefly presented stationary object was examined. When the stationary object was aligned with the final portion of the moving target's trajectory, memory for the location of the stationary object was displaced forward (i.e., in the direction of motion of the moving target); the magnitude of forward displacement increased with increases in the velocity of the moving target, decreased with increases in the distance of the stationary object from the final location of the moving target, and increased and then decreased with increases in retention interval. It is suggested that forward displacement in memory for a stationary object aligned with the final portion of a moving target's trajectory reflects an influence of representational momentum of the moving target on memory for the location of the stationary object. Implications of the data for theories of representational momentum and motion induced mislocalization are discussed.     

Mothers’ Perceptions of Young Children,Parenting, and Young Children's Behavior Problems

Historically, research demonstrates that mothers’ attitudes and characteristics of their parenting are intertwined. More recently, mothers’ perceptions of their children are becoming a new focus of interest. To further understand the relationships among mothers’ perceptions of their young children, their parenting behaviors, and their ratings of their young children's behavior problems, this study examines the ratings of a diverse group of mothers who have young children. Correlational results of this study demonstrate that these variables are related in the anticipated directions. Further, results of regression analyses suggest that mothers’ positive and negative perceptions of their young children and their use of limit setting are important in predicting children's behavior problems. These findings suggest that interventions focusing on changing mothers’ perceptions of their young children as well as their parenting behaviors may be related to decreases in young children's behavior problems.     

Effects of peer group rejection and a new group's norms on children's intergroup attitudes

This study examined the effects of peer group rejection and a new group's norms on 7‐ and 9‐year old children's intergroup attitudes. Children (N =82) were rejected or accepted by an initial group, then accepted by a new group that had a norm of inclusion versus exclusion towards others. Results showed that rejected compared with accepted children had a more negative attitude towards the initial group, that they were equally positive towards their new group, but that the rejected children were more negative towards an outgroup. Results also revealed an age × target group × group norm effect that indicated that the younger children's attitudes towards the three groups were more negative in the exclusion versus acceptance norm condition. The older children were also more negative towards the initial and new groups in the exclusion condition, but their more positive attitudes towards the outgroup were unaffected by the group norms. The bases of the effects of peer group rejection and group norms are discussed.     

Social identity,peer group rejection,and young children's reactive,displaced, and proactive aggression

The effects of peer group rejection on 7‐ and 9‐year‐old children's (N= 192) reactive, displaced, and proactive aggression were examined in a group simulation study. Children were assigned membership in a pretend social group for a drawing competition and were then rejected or accepted by their group. Their direct and indirect aggressive intentions towards either the ingroup or outgroup were assessed. Analysis of their aggressive intentions revealed enhanced indirect aggression but less direct aggression. Peer group rejection, in comparison with acceptance, instigated reactive aggression towards the ingroup, and displaced reactive aggression towards the outgroup. Accepted children displayed proactive aggression towards the outgroup but not the ingroup. The implications of the findings for peer group rejection and aggression research are discussed.     

Importance of having agreeable friends in adolescence (especially when you are not)

Using the actor–partner interdependence model, we examined whether adolescent's agreeableness, best friend's agreeableness, and the interaction between adolescent‐friend agreeableness are important for interpersonal functioning. Adolescents (N = 158) in fifth to eighth grades who were part of best friend pairs completed personality and friendship measures. Adolescents' adjustment and victimization experiences were assessed by peer nominations. For boys, best friend's agreeableness moderated the relationship between the target boy's agreeableness and overt victimization, relational victimization, and externalizing problems. For girls, best friend's agreeableness moderated the relationship between the target girl's agreeableness and internalizing problems and prosocial skills. This study provides an initial glimpse into how traits of friends can influence outcomes beyond what would be expected from adolescents' personality alone.     

Gender Typed Advertisements and Impression Formation: The Role of Chronic and Temporary Accessibility

In this research, we tested the effects of chronic and temporary sources of accessibility on impression formation. Although some research suggests that chronicity amplifies temporary effects because of greater susceptibility to external primes, other research suggests that chronicity masks temporary effects because of redundance. We demonstrate in a thought listing study that in the domain of gender stereotypes, trait stereotypes may be routinely applied by those with a medium or high tendency to stereotype women, making external primes redundant. Based on this redundancy, we proposed that gender stereotypical primes will have little influence on subsequent judgments of those with a medium or high tendency to gender stereotype. In contrast, gender stereotypical primes will result in the classic assimilation effect for those with a low tendency to gender stereotype. We tested these propositions in the domain of female role portrayals in advertising and examined the effect of advertisements that feature women as homemakers (vs. do not feature women) on trait judgments of a target woman whose behaviors are ambiguously described. Results from 2 experiments show that, as predicted by the redundancy hypothesis, judgments of medium and high tendency to stereotype participants are not affected by advertisements portraying homemakers. Also as expected, judgments of low tendency to stereotype participants are assimilated to the homemaker prime. These results hold across tendency to trait stereotype (Experiment 1) and tendency to role stereotype (Experiment 2) and for trait judgments as well as gift choice. Theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.     

留守儿童情绪和行为问题特征的潜在类别分析：基于个体为中心的研究视角

对2288个留守儿童样本用儿童长处与困难问卷（SDQ）进行施测,并对他们的情绪和行为问题特征进行探索性的潜在类别分析,发现留守儿童的情绪和行为问题存在明显的分组特征。统计指标支持了3个潜类别的模型,根据3个潜在类别在问卷各条目上的条件概率特征分别定义为：“适应困难组”,“行为冲动组”和“良好适应组”,3个潜在类别所占全体样本的比例分别为32%、41%和27%。进一步的分析发现：相比较良好适应组而言,适应困难组和行为冲动组有着显著的性别和年级水平效应,适应困难组和行为冲动组的男生所占比例更大;同时,这两个组的小学生所占的比例也更大。     

Confrontation and Beyond: Examining a Stigmatized Target's Use of a Prejudice Reduction Strategy

What can stigmatized individuals do to reduce stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination when they interact with a biased individual? This paper reviews the social psychological literature that examines how targets can be active agents of prejudice reduction for themselves and their group. The extant literature indicates that a target's direct confrontation of bias can reduce prejudice and discrimination against the target's group but that this strategy can also backlash in the form of increased prejudice and discrimination against the target. Other research indicates that presenting a common‐identity, self‐enhancing feedback, and a self‐affirmation can reduce bias against the target but that they may not reliably change bias against the target's group. We conclude by discussing the need for research on the processes by which stigmatized targets decide to use a given bias‐reduction strategy and on the processes by which specific strategies are effective, either alone or in combination, when delivered by a stigmatized target.     

Secondhand information and social judgment

This research investigates how secondhand impressions of other people differ from those based on firsthand information. It was hypothesized that secondhand impressions are often more extreme because secondhand accounts of another person's actions frequently fail to convey adequately the role of mitigating circumstances and situational constraints in producing that person's behavior. Experiments 1 and 2 tested this hypothesis by exposing “first generation” subjects to information about a target person, having them rate the target on several trait and attribution scales, and having them describe the target person's actions to a group of “second generation” subjects. As predicted, second generation subjects made more extreme ratings of the target than their first generation counterparts. Content analyses of the accounts transmitted by first generation subjects indicated that they did indeed underemphasize various situational qualifications of the target persons' behavior. Experiment 3 extended these findings by demonstrating that people's impressions of someone they have often heard about from a friend (but never met) are more extreme than their friends' more informed impressions.     

Continuing education,identity, sex role,and psychosocial development in adult women

Comparisons on psychosocial development and sex-role identification were made between 39 adult women returning to college in midlife and 40 traditional homemakers. Significantly more homemakers had foreclosed on the adult identity issues of goals and religion and scored lower on a measure of psychological androgyny. Women in continuing education showed greater evidence of identity crisis as they neared graduation. The two groups did not differ along Eriksonian developmental stages, but there were differences in the pattern of favorable and unfavorable resolutions of psychosocial crises within both groups. The results support the existence of an identity crisis as a response to life events in adulthood and demonstrate a relationship between behavioral and self-report indices of rejection or acceptance of the traditional feminine role.This research was completed in partial fulfillment of the doctorate degree from the Graduate School of Education and Human Development, University of Rochester.