THE EFFECT OF COMMUNICATION APPREHENSION AND SITUATION ON COMMUNICATION STRATEGY CHOICES

Volunteer undergraduate students were administered a questionnaire that assessed their perceptions of the probable use of certain persuasive strategies in a given situation and measured their level of communication apprehension. Data were analyzed to test hypotheses concerning the effects of communication apprehension and type of situation on the use of persuasive strategies. Data confirmed the impact of situation on strategy selection but failed to demonstrate the effect of communication apprehension or an interaction between communication apprehension and situation on strategy use. Implications for communication apprehension and communication competence were offered.     

DISCLOSURE STYLES AND A HINT AT THEIR GENESIS

In this study we examine the possibility that persons vary in their styles of self-disclosure. A 3 (disclosure target: mother, father, best same-sex friend) × 2 (topic: schoolwork, social relations with others) × 5 (regulation of disclosure behavior: amount, valence, honesty-accuracy, control of depth of disclosure, intended disclosure) matrix was used to generate items with which subjects agreed or disagreed (e.g., re: mother and schoolwork, I am always honest in my self-disclosures). A Q-analysis revealed four types of disclosers, including a type that was low in honesty and amount of disclosure to parents (parent-cryptic disclosers) and a type that was comparatively open to parents but low in amount and high in control of depth of disclosures to best friend (parentally open friend-cryptic disclosers). Discriminant analyses revealed that “family communication” patterns and “communication apprehension” were important variables in distinguishing the types, and a canonical correlation analysis showed that these two variables were generally important in predicting disclosure behavior across the entire subject sample.     

THE EFFECTS OF COMMUNICATION APPREHENSION ON COMMUNICATION EFFECTIVENESS1

This study investigated the following hypothesis: physiological, psychological, and verbal behavior indices of communication apprehension can predict comprehension, perception of speaker credibility, and ratings of speech effectiveness. The stimulus materials were videotapes of the first minute of 85 different students expressing their views on women's liberation. Measurement on all the indices of communication apprehension had been taken on these students as the videotapes were being prepared. Each of these one-minute videotapes was shown to a single receiver who then filled out forms measuring comprehension, perception of source credibility, and rating of speech effectiveness. Results supported the hypothesis that the indices of communication apprehension could predict all the communication effects save one, perception of character. The strongest relationship between the set of communication apprehension variables and the set of communication effectiveness variables indicated that individuals who reported high apprehension experienced much silence in their speech and received low ratings on language facility, vocal characteristics, and general effectiveness.     

COMMUNICATION APPREHENSION AND ACHIEVEMENT IN A PERFORMANCE-ORIENTED BASIC COMMUNICATION COURSE

The study of communication apprehension (CA) impact in the instructional environment is extended through examination of all three CA levels relative to various performance situations in a basic communication course. Results indicate significant differences in achievement indices between all three CA groups on final course grade and the first two of four performance assignments. Moderate and high CA groups were not significantly different from each other on the third and fourth performance tasks. Low and high CA groups were significantly different in all performance areas. No differences were indicated between CA groups on the final examination. Results are discussed relative to the naturalistic nature of the study.     

AN ASSIMILATION THEORY PERSPECTIVE OF COMMUNICATION APPREHENSION

In this study, both the dynamic and stable qualities of communication apprehension are examined from an assimilation theory perspective. Based upon assimilation theory, PRC A scores obtained after an intervening speech performance are predicted from initial levels of communication apprehension and discrepancies between those initial levels and the levels of state anxiety experienced during speech performance. The results of multiple regression analysis indicate that both initial apprehension levels and the discrepancy variable contributed significantly to the prediction of post-intervention PRCA scores, a finding that supports an assimilation theory perspective of communication apprehension.     

Patterns of self-disclosure in homosexual and heterosexual college students

Two hypotheses concerning self-disclosure were investigated and confirmed in the present study, comparing homosexual and heterosexual college students. The first hypothesis was that self-disclosure, as measured by the Jourard Self-Disclosure Questionnaire, would be positively correlated with psychological femininity. The second hypothesis was that homosexual males and heterosexual females would exhibit similar patterns of high disclosure and femininity. No significant differences were found in total disclosure between homosexuals and heterosexuals, although homosexuals disclosed less to father, and more to friends than to parents. The conclusion was that psychological femininity and masculinity are more important than biological sex in determining self-disclosure.     

STUDIES OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COMMUNICATION APPREHENSION AND SELF-ESTEEM

This paper reports research conducted as a part of a continuing program designed to provide empirical delineation of the communication apprehension construct. Five studies are reported which indicate a substantial correlation (r =?.52 to r =?.72) between oral communication apprehension and self-esteem. Results from two college student samples (N = 192 and N = 272), two samples of elementary and secondary teachers (N = 202, N = 384), and a sample of federal employees (N = 211) indicate highly consistent relationships across age groups and occupational types.     

SILENCE ISN'T NECESSARILY GOLDEN: COMMUNICATION APPREHENSION,DESIRED SOCIAL CHOICE,AND ACADEMIC SUCCESS AMONG MIDDLE-SCHOOL STUDENTS

Communication apprehension was found to be significantly negatively related to both middle-school students’ attitudes toward school and final grades. In addition, communication apprehension was found to influence the choice of desired others made by students and their teacher in a classroom communication network. In general, communication apprehensive students were found not to be considered desirable communication choices by their peers.     

COMMUNICATION APPREHENSION AND BEHAVIOR: APPLYING A MULTIPLE ACT CRITERIA1

Operating from a model derived from research on the attitude-behavior relationship, a conceptualization is presented which indicts current attempts to select a specific behavior and examine its relationship with a personality characteristic relevant to the field of communication. Evidence is presented demonstrating that the characteristic should predict well a multiple act criteria but not a single act criterion. In addition, an empirical distinction is predicted between apprehension and attitude and a comparison is made between three self-report measures of apprehension.     

MONOMORPHIC AND POLYMORPHIC OPINION LEADERSHIP WITHIN A RELATIVELY CLOSED COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Previous research generally has indicated that within modern societies opinion leaders tend to function within single-topic areas, whereas, within traditional societies, opinion leaders tend to function across multiple-topic areas. Results conflicting with this general pattern have been obtained by several researchers. The present study was based on the speculation that these discrepant findings could be explained by the nature of the communication system in which the subjects function (varying from relatively open to relatively closed), regardless of the general society surrounding the communication system. The results of the study found a high degree of association between monomor-phic and polymorphic opinion leadership within a relatively closed communication system in a modern society. Supplementary findings indicated moderately high association between both innovativeness and communication apprehension and polymorphic opinion leadership. Much lower relationships between monomorphic opinion leadership and these variables were observed.     

Sex differences in preadolescent self-disclosure

Both amount and content of self-disclosure may vary with sex role. Both adult and preadolescent females have been reported as engaging in greater amounts of self-disclosure than males; the present study attempted to replicate these findings with preadolescents, and to investigate sex differences in the content of self-disclosure. A self-disclosure questionnaire covering a wide range of subjects was administered to 307 urban children. The sex difference on the total number of items revealed to a friend closely approached significance, with girls showing greater disclosure. When only intimate content items were examined, the sex difference reached clear significance. Content analysis showed that girls were more willing to reveal items related to emotionality, anxiety, and dependence.     

A Qualitatively Constructed Interpersonal Communication Model A Grounded Theory Analysis

This study examined 288 interpersonal research articles published during the past 25 years in Human Communication Research. The method used was grounded theory. Through constant comparison analysis, a 17-part categorization system was developed to account for each of the articles. The categories were cognition, nonverbal communication, compliance-gaining, message type, personality, interpersonal effects, conversation, close relationships, perception, deception, initial interaction, culture, relationship development, apprehension, self-disclosure, competence, and conflict. The categories were then placed in relationship with one another to create a model of interpersonal communication that consists of seven components. The final representation provides a new model of interpersonal communication, which is obtained from data, empirically supported, and analytically derived.     

Sex differences in self-disclosure: a meta-analysis.

A meta-analysis of 205 studies involving 23,702 Ss was conducted to determine whether there are sex differences in self-disclosure. Across these studies, women disclosed slightly more than men (d = .18). This effect size was not homogeneous across studies. Several moderator variables were found. Sex of target and the interaction effect of relationship to target and measure of self-disclosure moderated the effect of sex on self-disclosure. Sex differences in self-disclosure were significantly greater to female and same-sex partners than to opposite-sex or male partners. When the target had a relationship with the discloser (i.e., friend, parent, or spouse), women disclosed more than men regardless of whether self-disclosure was measured by self-report or observation. When the target was a stranger, men reported that they disclosed similarly to women; however, studies using observational measures of self-disclosure found that women disclosed more than men.     

PERSONALITY CORRELATES OF COMMUNICATION APPREHENSION: A RESEARCH NOTE

Research is reported indicating significant relationships between communication apprehension and 18 of 21 personality variables studied. High communication apprehension was found to be associated with a wide range of socially maladaptive personality characteristics.     

COMMUNICATION FEAR: A CORRELATIONAL STUDY OF TRAIT GENERALITY

Recent theoretical analyses of communication fear have employed the analogy of state and trait anxiety. Communication apprehension is considered to be representative of general trait anxiety which is a function of disordered personality processes. Public speaking fear represents state anxiety and is a function of normal social evaluation anxiety. Two studies are reported which correlate state-trait measures of anxiety with communication apprehension and public speaking fear. The data support the hypothesis that communication apprehension is associated with trait anxiety but, contrary to the theoretical analysis, public speaking anxiety is associated with both state anxiety and trait anxiety. The results are discussed in terms of the theoretical analysis of communication fear. The implications for future research on assessment and amelioration of communication fear are considered.     

AN EXPLORATION OF COMMUNICATION AND PRODUCTIVITY IN REAL BRAINSTORMING GROUPS

This study analyzed the performance of individuals in real brainstorming groups in an attempt to determine the relationship between individual ideational output, perceptions of status within the group, and communication apprehension. Results of a multiple discriminant analysis suggest that persons who are high producers of ideas perceive fewer status differences among group members, perceive themselves as high status group members and are less apprehensive as communicators than those persons low in productivity. The linear combination of discriminating variables was able to successfully classify over 75% of the subjects into their actual output group.     

Effects of Administrator and Participant Sex and Ethnicity on Self-Disclosure

Self-disclosure patterns of Anglo-Americans and Mexican Americans were analyzed according to overall frequency of reported self-disclosure and preferred targets (i.e., mother, father, male friend, female friend). Administrator sex and ethnicity were systematically varied so that the interaction of these variables with participant sex and ethnicity could be investigated. Results revealed that Anglo-Americans reported the most disclosure and Mexican-American men the least. Some suggestions are provided for counselors working with Mexican-American men.     

Friend support and psychological distress in a U.S. adult twin sample

Friend support is often assumed to exert direct environmental influences on psychological distress, yet the role of both genetic and environmental influences on this association has not been examined. This study investigates whether both genetic and environmental factors explain the link between friend support and psychological distress in adults. The sample was drawn from the Midlife Development in the United States study and included 947 pairs of monozygotic, same‐sex dizygotic (DZ), and opposite‐sex DZ twins. Results showed that genetic influences explain the association between friend support and psychological distress, suggesting that heritable contributions to friend support also shape psychological distress. Interventions focused on psychological distress should consider how individuals' heritable characteristics influence their friend support and psychological distress.     

Understanding associations among family support,friend support,and psychological distress

Emotional support from family and friends is associated with lower psychological distress. This study examined whether genetic and environmental influences explain associations among family support, friend support, and psychological distress. Data were drawn from the Midlife Development in the United States (MIDUS) study and included 947 pairs of monozygotic (MZ), same‐sex dizygotic (DZ), and opposite‐sex DZ twins. Results showed that a genetic factor explains the relation between friend support and psychological distress, independent of family support. Alternatively, a nonshared environmental factor accounts for an association between family support, friend support, and psychological distress. Thus, heritable factors shape a distinct relation between friend support and psychological distress, but unique experiences contribute to a link between family support, friend support, and psychological distress.     

ROLE-TAKING AND REFERENTIAL COMMUNICATION ABILITIES IN FIRST- AND THIRD-GRADE CHILDREN1

This study investigated role-taking and referential communication abilities in children. The effects of age, sex, and IQ on both abilities were tested, and the effect of age of receiver on referential communication ability was also examined. Multiple regression analyses were utilized to determine how well the independent variables predict the measures of role-taking and referential communication. Finally, the relationship between role-taking and referential communication was assessed. The participants were 32 first-graders and 32 third-graders. At each grade level, there were equal numbers of boys and girls. Age was found to affect performance on role-taking and communication tasks. Both sex of the child and IQ were found to affect referential communication performance. The relationship between role-taking and referential communication abilities was low. Interpretation of significant results is given, and testing procedures are discussed.