PERCEPTION OF PICTORIAL SPACE BY BUSHMEN*

A new test for measuring the ability to perceive pictorial depth was used with children of two remote Bushman populations (!Xu and Kxoe), as well as with a sample of adult Bushmen drawn from these populations and a sample of urban Zulu children. The results show that subjects of apparently little sophistication are capable of perceiving depth when confronted with a ‘geometric’ figure. They also show surprising inter-group differences which cannot be easily explained by differences of environmental experience.     

THE STUDY OF THE PROBLEM OF PICTORIAL PERCEPTION AMONG UNACCULTURATED GROUPS

L'étude du problème de la perception des images chez des peuples non occidentalisés. — Les psychologues sociaux se sont détournés de L'étude relativement stérile des différences raciales sous L'angle quantitatif pour se tourner vers la recherche, plus significative, des différences qualitatives dans L'expérience cognitive des groupes sans acculturation: L'étude de la perception des images est caractéristique de ce genre de recherches. Jusqu'à une période récente, on prenait pour garanti que les images réalisées selon les habitudes occidentales avaient une égale valeur didactique pour toutes les cultures. Or, les phénomènes d'erreurs de perception ont été explorés dans une série d'expériences, conçues pour étudier systématiquement les réponses perceptives aux conventions occidentales en matière de représentations: elles montrent que le noir illettré comprend mal les indices conventionnels utilisés ponr représenter la profondeur; le noir instruit fait également des erreurs perceptives ou répond de façon ambivalente. Chez les blancs, la manière conventionnelle de percevoir les images se développe à L'école primaire, mais dérive principalement du contexte culturel non formel, puisqu'un groupe de blancs instruits, mais isolés, fait les mêmes erreurs qu'un groupe de noirs illettrés: il est clair que la cause en est une privation perceptive spécifique, culturellement et non racialement induite. Outre les indices de profondeur, d'autres indices, comme la position ou L'orientation, créent des problèmes aux noirs dans L'interprétation des images. Les résultats de ces recherches semblent valider un modèle psychologique de hiérarchie dynamique des capacités: les capacités supérieures seraient moins affectées par les expériences liées à un milieu spécifique, mais la culture aurait un rôle formateur à jouer dans L'efficacité de capacités plus périphériques comme la perception des images. Cependant, sur la base de travaux expérimentaux plus récents, d'autres théories ont été avancées pour expliquer les données expérimentales: L'une d'entre elles propose de remplacer le principe d'habitude perceptive par celui de privation sémantique. Cette approche est trop sélective et n'explique pas les différences observées dans les réponses au cours d'expériences qui utilisaient conjointement des réponses verbales et des réponses manipulatoires. La dernière étude suggère que les erreurs dans la perception des images peuvent être dues à L'incapacité d'intégrer la totalité des stimuli perceptifs présentés dans L'image. L'auteur passe en revue une série de recherches appliquées, menées en Afrique du Sud, de L'Ouest et de L'Est ainsi qu'en Amérique du Sud et en Amérique Centrale, sur la perception des affiches et des représentations symboliques. Ces études corroborent L'existence des problèmes que rencontrent les non-occidentalisés dans la perception des images: les indices conventionnels utilisés pour représenter la profondeur sont sources de confusions; les représentations symboliques sont mal ou pas comprises; la simplification et la réduction des détails sont essentiels, mais la sursimplification, qui réduit le réalisme, peut aller à L'encontre de ce que voulait signifier L'artiste. La compréhension des images tend à être liée à la scolarisation et à L'urbanisation. Les affiches, bien que porteuses de messages spécifiques, n'évoquent souvent qu'une réponse générale; en ce sens, on peut dire qu'au mieux, elles préparent le percevant, en le prédisposant à recevoir le message. Il est essentiel, en premier lieu, que le matériel pictural soit adapté au niveau d'acculturation des percevants: ceci signifie qu'il faut utiliser une série de représentations qui soient appropriées aux niveaux d'acculturation des divers groupes concernés. En second lieu, les images et illustrations sont essentiellement des aides visuelles et en tant que telles, doivent être convenablement intégrées à la situation pédagogique totale. C'est seulement à ces conditions que le temps, les efforts et L'argent dépensés à les réaliser et à les utiliser seront des investissements fructueux.     

ORIENTATION AND PERCEPTION OF PICTORIAL DEPTH

Des échantillons d'écoliers zambiens et écossais sont soumis à une épreuve d'interprétation de dessin géométrique simple, présenté selon deux orientations: la figure est symétrique soit par rapport à L'axe vertical, soit par rapport à un axe incliné. Les résultats montrent que L'orientation affecte les réponses de L'échantillon écossais: les réponses bi-dimensionnelles sont plus fréquentes avec L'axe de symétrie vertical; mais ce n'est pas le cas pour les enfants zambiens. On ne constate aucun progrès dans la discrimination des deux orientations avec L'âge ou la scolarité dans L'échantillon zambien. L'auteur discute des implications de ces résultats.     

THE CROSS-CULTURAL STUDY OF INTELLIGENCE: PIAGET AND THE BAOULÉ*

There are two aspects of Piaget's theory that can be at least partly distinguished: (1) The stage theory, or the development of particular concepts through a series of hierarchical stages; (2) The metatheory, or the interactionist model of adaptation (assimilation and accommodation) that explains the mechanisms of cognitive development. Most cross-cultural research has been based on the first of these aspects, using and adapting “Piagetian tasks ”in various conceptual areas. Some findings of this line of enquiry, and the methodological problems encountered, are briefly reviewed. It is argued that no specific task, nor a combination of them, can be taken to measure a general cognitive level; the tasks measure the attainment of particular concepts rather than “intelligence”. New evidence is presented on the reliability and validity of Piagetian tasks used in a cross-cultural setting. In the second model, intelligence is broadly defined as adaptation to the environment; in this conception it would be reasonable to expect divergent paths of cognitive development in different cultures. In other words, one might need a different Piagetian psychology in each culture, but based on universal deep mechanisms. As a modest contribution to a more “emic ”study of intelligence, the concept of intelligence as defined by the Baoulé of Ivory Coast, n'glouèlě is presented and discussed. Ratings on n'glouèlě and its different components are related to performance on Piagetian tasks in a sample of 8- to 9-year-old rural Baoulé children. The thrust of the paper is to point out once more the cultural relativity of any conception of intelligence, be it from a Piagetian or any other perspective.     

EQUIVALENCE OF CROSS-CULTURAL DATA: AN OVERVIEW OF BASIC ISSUES

The logic of comparison is taken as a starting point. It is argued that any cross-cultural comparison presupposes a comparison scale, i.e. a scale that is identical across the populations included in a study. Scale identity can be specified for various levels of measurement. In the second section a simple classification is presented for inferences about cross-cultural differences derived from psychological measurements. Two questions are asked for various categories of inferences, viz., whether they are logically feasible and whether they can be validated empirically. In the third section the statistical analysis of psychometric conditions for equivalence is discussed. The fourth section deals with the problem what alternatives for meaningful interpretation a researcher has if data turn out to be lacking in equivalence. In the fifth section a conceptual problem is raised, namely whether the basic assumption of this article is realistic that psychological concepts are identical across cultures.     

拓扑性质知觉的大脑半球功能不对称性研究

本文以视觉的拓扑知觉理论为指导进行大脑半球功能不对称性的研究。全文共有三个实验,考察了辨别扭扑性质差异和其它几何性质差异时大脑半球的功能不对称性．拓扑性质差异包括洞（封闭性）的差异和内外关系的差异．实验结果显示：对于右利手被试,辨别拓扑性质差异时,左半球有优势。辨别距离和朝向等几何性质差异时,右半球有优势或没有统计显著的大脑半球功能不对称性。     

LOCUS OF CONTROL IN INDIA: A CROSS-CULTURAL PERSPECTIVE*

A study of 376 high school graduates representing equal numbers of male-female, age groups of 20–30 and 40–50 years and Hindu, non-Hindu Indians were examined on Rotter's I-E Scale. Contrary to earlier reports (Carment 1974) the group was not more internal than previously reported scores of other cultures. A 2 times; 2 times; 2 ANOVA revealed that sex and religion contributed significantly. Belief in the theory of Karma and socioeconomic status also contributed significantly. Similar analyses of three subscales of I-E, Personal Control, Control Ideology and Systems Control showed some reversals of results of total I-E.     

THE USE OF THE BEHAVIOR PROBLEM CHECKLIST WITH GREEK DEAF CHILDREN IN CROSS-CULTURAL RESEARCH*

The Behavior Problem Checklist was completed by teachers of 127 students who attended a state supported school for the deaf in Athens, Greece. Analyses were performed which generated three, four, five, and ten factors. The biographic variables of sex and age were also included in some of the analyses to determine their effect, if any, on the factor structure. Results of the analyses were compared to analogous results for U.S. deaf children and Greek hearing children. Three factors which correspond to dimensions found in earlier research and previously labeled conduct problem, personality problem, and inadequacy-immaturity were found. Overall the Greek deaf children tended to have problem behavior patterns similar to the U.S. deaf and Greek hearing as well as other populations. It was apparent that these patterns for the Greek deaf children were largely independent of the deafness handicap and differences in cultural background.     

ATTRIBUTIONAL DIFFERENCES IN THE LIFE SATISFACTIONS OF THE ELDERLY: A CROSS-CULTURAL COMPARISON OF ASIAN AND UNITED STATES SUBJECTS*

A cross-cultural examination of the attributions for the life satisfactions of the elderly was conducted by using a sample of 80 Asian-Indian and 80 United States retired citizens. It was hypothesized that factors of hard work, luck, family ties, religious faith, travel and recreation, personal abilities, money, social status, service to others and friendships would account for differences in the attributions for life-satisfactions of the two cultural groups. Results showed that more Asian than United States subjects reported satisfaction with life. Consistent with predictions, the attributions of the Asian group showed religious faith, service to others, family ties and luck as being very important factors contributing to life satisfaction. By contrast, more United States subjects reported that hard work, personal abilities, travel and recreation, and social status had significantly influenced their life satisfactions. Findings were interpreted in terms of cultural and socio-psychological variables which influence the attributions for life satisfactions.     

A CROSS-CULTURAL STUDY OF PERSONALITY: EGYPTIAN AND ENGLISH CHILDREN*

679 Egyptian boys and 696 girls completed the Junior Eysenck Personality Questionnaire, translated into Arabic. Factor comparisons were moderately high for extraversion and social desirability but weak for neuroticism and psychoticism. Suitable item substitution produced a scoring key resulting in adequate reliabilities with the exception of a somewhat low reliability for the boys on extraversion and low reliabilities on psychoticism for both sexes. Sex differences on means of the dimensions were as usual, boys scoring higher than girls on extraversion and psychoticism, but lower on neuroticism and social desirability. Moreover, on comparing Egyptian with English means, using scales of items in common only, the English boys and girls scored higher than their Egyptian counterparts on extraversion but significantly lower on social desirability. British boys scored higher on psychoticism than did Egyptian boys but British girls scored lower than Egyptian girls.     

MOTILITY,AGGRESSION, AND THE BODILY I: AN INTERPRETATION OF WINNICOTT

Among the central ideas associated with the name of Winnicott, scant mention is made of motility. This is largely attributable to Winnicott himself, who never thematized motility and never wrote a paper specifically devoted to the topic. This paper suggests both that the idea of motility is nonetheless of central significance in Winnicott's thought, and that motility is of central importance in the development and constitution of the bodily I. In elaborating both these suggestions, the paper gives particular attention to the connections between motility, continuity, aggression, and creativity in Winnicott's work.     

THE TRAINABILITY OF FORMAL THINKING: A CROSS-CULTURAL COMPARISON

In order to investigate what is learned in a training study on inductive reasoning, three tests were composed, involving two stimulus domains, namely letters and figures. Each test was composed on the basis of a set of explicitly defined item generating rules. The two figural tests were isomorphic tests, that is, they had identical problem structures but invoked different stimulus domains, simple geometric patterns and drawings of fruit. These tests were administered to pupils from grade 6 in The Netherlands, Surinam and Zambia. Half of each class was then trained at one of the three tests, while the other half did not get any training. During the training the pupils were taught to solve the items by trying to detect the features of the item generating rules. Four possible outcomes of transfer studies were postulated, differing in the generality of transfer of the results. By means of a Multivariate Analysis of Variance with Repeated Measures it was possible to differentiate between the four kinds of transfer; a pattern of fairly restricted transfer was demonstrated in each culture. Furthermore, in Zambia a remarkable score increase was found at the Letter Test, occurring both in the experimental and in the control condition. It was argued that this increase was caused by improved test-taking skills, learned at the first test administration.