Assessing the Flexibility of Managers: A comparison of methods1

Despite keen interest, questions remain about defining and measuring the behavioral flexibility of managers. This paper reports a conceptual and empirical comparison of three alternative methods of assessing this construct. Results suggest that the way managerial flexibility is typically assessed in practice – as a trait‐like characteristic with coworker ratings that describe a general tendency to vary behavior across situations – is deficient. However, more complex models that represent flexibility as a higher‐order construct reflecting mastery of specific and opposing behaviors in both the social/interpersonal domain and the functional/organizational domain show promise. They demonstrate construct validity evidence, predict as much as 42% of the variance in overall effectiveness, and provide more specific diagnostic information to guide behavior change.     

The assessment of adolescent self-esteem: A comparison of methods1

The present series of studies explores the relationship between two conceptions of self-esteem: the self as experienced by the individual and the self as presented to others. Traditional measures of self-esteem are employed, and two new methods of assessing self-esteem in adolescents are introduced: an observational measure of self-esteem behavior (presented self) and a repeated self-report measure (experienced self). The presented self (observed behavior and peer ratings) and the experienced self (Rosenberg, Lerner, and a new method, paging devices) measures were consistent within themselves in assessing self-esteem. The presented self and the experienced self were not, however, significantly related to each other. We propose a moderator variable (“defensiveness”) to explain these discrepancies, and suggest that the observation of adolescent behavior provides a more accurate assessment of self-esteem than self-report measures.     

Demographic faultlines: a meta-analysis of the literature

We propose and test a theoretical model focusing on antecedents and consequences of demographic faultlines. We also posit contingencies that affect overall team dynamics in the context of demographic faultlines, such as the study setting and performance measurement. Using meta-analysis structural equation modeling with a final data set consisting of 311 data points (i.e., k [predictor-criterion relationships]), from 39 studies that were obtained from 36 papers with a total sample size of 24,388 individuals in 4,366 teams, we found that sex and racial diversity increased demographic faultline strength more than did diversity on the attributes of functional background, educational background, age, and tenure. Demographic faultline strength was found to increase task and relationship conflict as well as decrease team cohesion. Furthermore, although demographic faultline strength decreased both team satisfaction and team performance, there was a stronger decrease in team performance than in team satisfaction. The strength of these relationships increased when the study was conducted in the lab rather than in the field. We describe the theoretical and practical implications of these findings for advancing the study of faultlines.     

A glimpse into traditional outlook towards health: A literature review

Traditional healing processes are delivering health needs to a large number of people in many developing countries. This paper reviews traditional healers' knowledge about concepts of health, etiology, anatomical and physiological knowledge, diagnosis and treatment and management of abnormality.     

The relationship between pay and job satisfaction: A meta-analysis of the literature

Whereas the motivational aspects of pay are well-documented, the notion that high pay leads to high levels of satisfaction is not without debate. The current study used meta-analysis to estimate the population correlation between pay level and measures of pay and job satisfaction. Cumulating across 115 correlations from 92 independent samples, results suggested that pay level was correlated .15 with job satisfaction and .23 with pay satisfaction. Various moderators of the relationship were investigated. Despite the popular theorizing, results suggest that pay level is only marginally related to satisfaction. Theoretical and practical implications of the results are discussed.     

Fitting identity in the reasoned action framework: A meta-analysis and model comparison

Several competing models have been put forth regarding the role of identity in the reasoned action framework. The standard model proposes that identity is a background variable. Under a typical augmented model, identity is treated as an additional direct predictor of intention and behavior. Alternatively, it has been proposed that identity measures are inadvertent indicators of an underlying intention factor (e.g., a manifest-intention model). In order to test these competing hypotheses, we used data from 73 independent studies (total N = 23,917) to conduct a series of meta-analytic structural equation models. We also tested for moderation effects based on whether there was a match between identity constructs and the target behaviors examined (e.g., if the study examined a “smoker identity” and “smoking behavior,” there would be a match; if the study examined a “health conscious identity” and “smoking behavior,” there would not be a match). Average effects among primary reasoned action variables were all substantial, rs = .37–.69. Results gave evidence for the manifest-intention model over the other explanations, and a moderation effect by identity-behavior matching.     

Web-based administration of a personality questionnaire: Comparison with traditional methods

The World-Wide Web holds great promise as a mechanism for questionnaire-based research. But are data from Web-based questionnaires comparable to data from standard paper-and-pencil questionnaires? This study assessed the equivalence of the Ruminative Responses Scale in a Web-based format and in a paper-and-pencil format among introductory psychology, upper-level psychology, and non-psychology students. Internal consistency coefficients were comparable across the groups. The participants in the Web sample reported higher levels of self-focused rumination than did the other groups. Women in the Web sample reported more self-focused rumination than did women in the other groups. In the Web sample, results did not covary with access location. These results suggest that findings from Web-based questionnaire research are comparable with results obtained using standard procedures. The computerized Web interface may also facilitate self-disclosure among research participants.     

Visual regulation of manual aiming: A comparison of methods

Visual regulation of upper limb movements occurs throughout the trajectory and is not confined to discrete control in the target area. Early control is based on the dynamic relationship between the limb, the target, and the environment. Despite robust outcome differences between protocols involving visual manipulations, it remains difficult to identify the kinematic events that characterize these differences. In this study, participants performed manual aiming movements with and without vision. We compared several traditional approaches to movement analysis with two new methods of quantifying online limb regulation. As expected, participants undershot the target and their movement endpoints were more variable when vision was not available. Although traditional measures such as reaction time, time after peak velocity, and the presence of discontinuities in acceleration were sensitive to the visual manipulation, measures quantifying the trial-to-trial spatial variability throughout the trajectory were the most effective in isolating the time course of online regulation.     

Evaluating the integration hypothesis: A meta-analysis of the ICSEY project data using two new methods

The Integration Hypothesis states that acculturating migrants who adopt the integration strategy (i.e. being doubly engaged, in both their heritage culture and in the larger national society) will have better psychological and socio-cultural adaptation than those who adopt any other strategy (Assimilation, Separation or Marginalization). This hypothesis was supported in the original evaluation of the ICSEY project data, using the mean adaptation scores for individuals in the four acculturation clusters. This conclusion was further supported by an analysis that used scores that were derived from the two underlying dimensions. This paper further evaluates this hypothesis meta-analytically using two new methods: Cultural Involvement and Cultural Preference; and Euclidean Distance. The results showed that these two methods provided support for the integration hypothesis, for both psychological adaptation and socio-cultural adaptation. The pattern of relationships was stronger for positive than for negative indicators of adaptation. Theoretical and practical implications of the results are discussed.     

Alcohol use among partner violent adults: Reviewing recent literature to inform intervention

Intimate partner violence is widely recognized as a public health problem. Although intervention programs exist for partner violent persons, there are discrepancies in the literature regarding the effectiveness of such programs. Current standards of treatment have been depicted as “one-size-fits-all,” lending credence to the notion that program goals are admirable, but incongruent with the heterogeneous needs, such as substance abuse treatment, of their clientele. This review of recent literature describes the role of alcohol in adult IPV commission. The author used two databases (Web of Science and PsycInfo), which retrieved 50 unduplicated articles published between January 2009 and April 2012. Eight articles were ultimately identified for further examination. The prevalence of alcohol within partner violence commission is presented in detail as well as future research and practice implications.     

A comparison of stimulus preference assessment methods in adults with schizophrenia

Three methods of assessing preference for stimuli were compared in four adults with a diagnosis of schizophrenia. During phase 1, a survey method, a verbal stimulus choice method, and a pictorial stimulus choice method of assessing preference for four categories of stimuli were administered. During phase 2, a coupon system was used to determine which categories of stimuli actually functioned as reinforcers for each participant. Comparisons between the three preference assessment methods were then conducted based on the results of the reinforcer assessment. Results showed that, overall, there were few differences in total accuracy among the preference assessment procedures. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Interaction with a baby by young adults: A comparison of traditional and feminist men and women

Recently, researchers have examined college students' interactions with unfamiliar babies. Most of the studies have reported that men and women show equal level of interest in these babies. However, one researcher reported a sex difference, with women interacting with a baby more than men did. Perhaps the subjects in the discrepant study were a more conservative or traditional group. In order to examine this possibility, this study compared traditional and feminist young adults. The Attitudes Toward Women Scale was used to preselect feminist and traditional men and women who were videotaped during a period of interaction with a baby. It was predicted that a sex difference would be found among the more traditional subjects only. However, women interacted with the baby more than men did in both groups.This project was supported by a grant to the author from the University of Wisconsin — Eau Claire research grant program. The author would like to thank Rhonda Kienitz, who collected and coded the data; Kay Draeger, who served as reliability coder; and Tom Blakemore, Allen Keniston, and Blaine Peden for their helpful comments.     

A comparison of three methods of fitting the normal ogive

The Mueller-Urban method of fitting the normal ogive is derived, and the inadequacies of its inherent assumptions are discussed. This and the unweighted least squares method are compared to the maximum likelihood solution which is shown to be very close to the ideal least squares solution. As an empirical demonstration of the superiority of the maximum likelihood solution, random ogives are fitted by all three methods and they are compared on the basis of the expected values and the standard errors of the estimates. It is concluded that the maximum likelihood solution is uniformly superior to the others in all respects.This research was done under Contract Nonr-248(55) between the Office of Naval Research and The Johns Hopkins University. This is Report No. 18 under that contract. Reproduction in whole or in part is permitted for any purpose of the United States Government. This paper is part of a dissertation submitted to The Johns Hopkins University. Part of this work was done while the author was a National Institutes of Health Research Fellow.Now at The Biometric Laboratory, The George Washington University. The author is indebted to Dr. Wendell R. Garner for his valuable advice and encouragement, and to Jerome Cornfield for several helpful discussions.     

Scaling occupational prestige by magnitude estimation and category rating methods: A comparison with the sensory domain

In a field study, models for magnitude estimation and for category ratings are applied to the scaling of occupational prestige. The two respective models provide sufficient conditions for magnitude estimates to yield logarithmic interval scales and for category ratings to lead to interval scales. Both models are found to hold reasonably well for the majority of respondents. As implied by a third model, the relation between magnitude estimation and category rating scales can well be described by a generalized power function. Although overall results do not favour one method over the other individual data analyses reveal substantial interindividual differences with respect to the capability of performing magnitude estimates and category ratings, respectively. The findings are compared to results recently found in psychophysical laboratory experiments, and it is concluded that the individual scale properties the two methods provide do not differ across the attitudinal and the sensory domains.     

Defining severe discrepancy in the diagnosis of learning disabilities: A comparison of methods

Given the significant increase in the number of students identified as learning-disabled (LD) and the growing concern about the overidentification of LD cases, attention has been focused on methods for determining a severe discrepancy between ability and achievement. Two such methods (a z-score discrepancy and a regression procedure) were compared by means of two different cutoff procedures on scores for 236 LD referrals. These results were then contrasted with a policy dictating that the lowest-achieving of those referred be considered as LD. Each student was evaluated with an individual intelligence scale and an achievement test. The results indicated that the regression procedure identified fewer students than did the z-score method. When the percentage of identified children is held constant, the methods were similar with respect to the types of errors made (false positives and false negatives). Data indicated that selecting the lowest-achieving students would have yielded about the same percentage of correct decisions, as defined by the multidisciplinary team, as did the two discrepancy methods. The policy implications of these findings are also considered.     

A comparison of collaborative and traditional instruction in higher education

Although collaborative instructional techniques have become popular in college courses, it is unclear whether collaborative techniques can replace more traditional instructional methods. We examined the efficacy of collaborative courses (in-class, collaborative activities with no lectures) compared to traditional lecture courses (in-class, instructor-led presentations) in four sections of introductory psychology. Most other aspects of the courses remained constant, including the professor, assignments, and exams. The collaborative learning condition resulted in significantly lower quiz and exam scores in addition to lower self-reported satisfaction with the course and the instructor than the traditional lecture condition. Moreover, students were no more likely to be satisfied with the social environment in the collaborative condition. Our results suggest that collaborative techniques may be a way to enhance professorial lectures but should not be used to replace them entirely. Further research should explore the ratio of collaborative to traditional techniques that is most beneficial for college student learning.