THE EFFECTS OF COMMUNICATION APPREHENSION ON COMMUNICATION EFFECTIVENESS1

This study investigated the following hypothesis: physiological, psychological, and verbal behavior indices of communication apprehension can predict comprehension, perception of speaker credibility, and ratings of speech effectiveness. The stimulus materials were videotapes of the first minute of 85 different students expressing their views on women's liberation. Measurement on all the indices of communication apprehension had been taken on these students as the videotapes were being prepared. Each of these one-minute videotapes was shown to a single receiver who then filled out forms measuring comprehension, perception of source credibility, and rating of speech effectiveness. Results supported the hypothesis that the indices of communication apprehension could predict all the communication effects save one, perception of character. The strongest relationship between the set of communication apprehension variables and the set of communication effectiveness variables indicated that individuals who reported high apprehension experienced much silence in their speech and received low ratings on language facility, vocal characteristics, and general effectiveness.     

Patient preferences for physician persuasion strategies

This study investigated patient preferences for various types of physician persuasion strategies. Four types of persuasion strategies were utilized which involved combination of high and low levels of affectivity and information. In addition, patient variables, receiver apprehension and health beliefs were introduced to predict preference choices by patients. Results indicated that patients are influenced in their decision-making (preferences) by the type of persuasive strategy employed. Further, patients with different characteristics and predispositions prefer different persuasive strategies. The results of this study suggest that the success of physician persuasiveness is dependent upon the type of strategy used and the type of patient being persuaded.     

Developing Successful Communication Strategies: A Test of an Integrated Framework for Effective Communication1

In studies of advertising, many communication strategies have been formulated, but little research has been carried out on the process of deciding what strategy can be used best in a particular situation. In social psychology, models have been developed that specify a number of behavioral determinants. Though communication practitioners often use these models, scientific proof of the effectiveness of persuasive messages based on these models is largely absent. In this study, knowledge from advertising studies and social psychology is combined in an integrated framework for effective communication. In an experiment on chocolate‐bar buying behavior, we prove that by making use of this framework, we can predict which advertising strategy is the most effective.     

PSYCHOLOGICAL SEX TYPE AND ANDROGYNY IN THE STUDY OF COMMUNICATION VARIABLES: SELF-DISCLOSURE AND COMMUNICATION APPREHENSION

This study extended the investigation of gender differences in two communication variables, self-disclosure and communication apprehension, by shifting the conceptual focus from the biological sex dichotomy to the more discriminating psychological sex-role designations: masculine, feminine, and androgynous. Using the Bern Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI) as a measure of psychological sex type, the study showed that psychological sex type is superior to biological sex categories in identifying patterns of self-reported self-disclosure and communication apprehension. A number of hypotheses were considered with regard to total disclosure to same-sex friend or opposite-sex friend, and communication apprehension.     

A TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS OF COMPLIANCE-GAINING BEHAVIOR

This study investigated how persuasive agents modify their compliance-gaining message strategy selection when they are confronted with noncompliant male and female persuasive targets in a variety of relational contexts. Based on instrumental learning theory, it was hypothesized that persuasive agents in noninterpersonal contexts would respond to noncompliant persuasive targets by increasing their preference for punishment-oriented message strategies and decreasing their preference for reward-oriented message strategies, whereas persuasive agents in interpersonal contexts would increase their preference for reward and punishment-oriented message strategies. Results confirmed the hypothesis. Moreover, males were expected to respond to noncompliant persuasive targets with more punishment-oriented strategies than females, and females were expected to use more rewarding strategies to secure compliance from noncompliant persuasive targets. However, results indicated that females responded to noncompliant persuasive targets with more punishment and reward-oriented strategies than males. Results also showed that the effects of persuasive agents' gender on message selection is mediated by the gender of persuasive targets and the duration of the relational consequences.     

SILENCE ISN'T NECESSARILY GOLDEN: COMMUNICATION APPREHENSION,DESIRED SOCIAL CHOICE,AND ACADEMIC SUCCESS AMONG MIDDLE-SCHOOL STUDENTS

Communication apprehension was found to be significantly negatively related to both middle-school students’ attitudes toward school and final grades. In addition, communication apprehension was found to influence the choice of desired others made by students and their teacher in a classroom communication network. In general, communication apprehensive students were found not to be considered desirable communication choices by their peers.     

THE STRANGER AND THE SPOUSE AS TARGET PERSONS FOR COMPLIANCE-GAINING STRATEGIES: A SUBJECTIVE EXPECTED UTILITY MODEL1

This study examines the use of compliance-gaining message strategies in “interpersonal” versus “noninterpersonal” relationships. Subjects were asked how likely they would be to use persuasive strategies in a hypothetical situation involving either a spouse (interpersonal situation) or new neighbors (noninterpersonal situation). A subjective expected utility model is proposed to account for subjects' choice of strategies. According to the SEU model, subjects weigh the expected advantages and disadvantages of strategies both in terms of their persuasiveness and their effects on the relationship with the persuadee. Regression analysis supported the use of the SEU model to predict subjects' choice of strategies. Situational comparisons of SEU indicated that most strategies are rated more persuasive, less likely to damage the personal relationship, and more likely to be used in the spouse situation than in the neighbor situation.     

AN ASSIMILATION THEORY PERSPECTIVE OF COMMUNICATION APPREHENSION

In this study, both the dynamic and stable qualities of communication apprehension are examined from an assimilation theory perspective. Based upon assimilation theory, PRC A scores obtained after an intervening speech performance are predicted from initial levels of communication apprehension and discrepancies between those initial levels and the levels of state anxiety experienced during speech performance. The results of multiple regression analysis indicate that both initial apprehension levels and the discrepancy variable contributed significantly to the prediction of post-intervention PRCA scores, a finding that supports an assimilation theory perspective of communication apprehension.     

COMMUNICATION FEAR: A CORRELATIONAL STUDY OF TRAIT GENERALITY

Recent theoretical analyses of communication fear have employed the analogy of state and trait anxiety. Communication apprehension is considered to be representative of general trait anxiety which is a function of disordered personality processes. Public speaking fear represents state anxiety and is a function of normal social evaluation anxiety. Two studies are reported which correlate state-trait measures of anxiety with communication apprehension and public speaking fear. The data support the hypothesis that communication apprehension is associated with trait anxiety but, contrary to the theoretical analysis, public speaking anxiety is associated with both state anxiety and trait anxiety. The results are discussed in terms of the theoretical analysis of communication fear. The implications for future research on assessment and amelioration of communication fear are considered.     

COGNITIVE TUNING AND DIFFERENTIATION OF ARGUMENTS IN COMMUNICATION

In an experiment examining the effects of cognitive tuning and attitudinal position upon individuals’ cognitive differentiation in generating arguments supporting and opposing an attitude issue, 162 undergraduate students were “tuned” either as potential sources (transmission tuning) or potential receivers (reception tuning) of a persuasive communication on one of two issues. They then prepared two lists of arguments, one positive and one negative for one of the attitude issues, after which they completed an attitude measure in both issues. As predicted, the subjects made salient and reported significantly more arguments consistent with than inconsistent with their attitudes toward the issues. More importantly, those persons prepared to function as communication sources generated significantly more arguments consistent with and fewer arguments inconsistent with their attitudes than did subjects expecting to receive persuasive communications on the issues.     

PERSONALITY CORRELATES OF COMMUNICATION APPREHENSION: A RESEARCH NOTE

Research is reported indicating significant relationships between communication apprehension and 18 of 21 personality variables studied. High communication apprehension was found to be associated with a wide range of socially maladaptive personality characteristics.     

Certain Factors Related to Liberal and Conservative Attitudes of College Students: Parental Membership in Certain Organizations

Summary

Demand cues (experiment title) and evaluation apprehension (a “personality” test) were manipulated in the context of a typical attitude change experiment. A significant effect for demand cues and an interaction between demand cues and evaluation apprehension were found. These results were interpreted as illustrating the basic flaw in the laboratory attitude change experiment; demand characteristics are confounded with the actual impact of the persuasive communication. Also, the concept of cooperation is downgraded as a variable in explaining demand characteristics effects in favor of the concept of evaluation apprehension. When subjects report cooperation on a postexperimental rating scale, they may be basing their report upon what they actually did in the experiment.     

FRIENDLY OR UNFRIENDLY PERSUASION

Expectancy theory suggests that people develop normative expectations about appropriateness of communication behavior that differ for males and females. Support was found for an interaction hypothesis predicting that males would be expected to use more verbally aggressive persuasive message strategies and would negatively violate expectations and be less persuasive when they deviated from such strategies. Moreover, females are expected to be less verbally aggressive and use more prosocial message strategies and are penalized for deviations from such an expected strategy. Manipulation checks indicated that people have clear differences in expected strategy use by males and females and that neither the psychological sex role nor biological sex of receivers alters those expectations. Results are discussed in terms of similarity to prior language research, as an extension of expectancy theory and as added knowledge about the effects of specific compliance-gaining message strategies.     

COMMUNICATION APPREHENSION AND ACHIEVEMENT IN A PERFORMANCE-ORIENTED BASIC COMMUNICATION COURSE

The study of communication apprehension (CA) impact in the instructional environment is extended through examination of all three CA levels relative to various performance situations in a basic communication course. Results indicate significant differences in achievement indices between all three CA groups on final course grade and the first two of four performance assignments. Moderate and high CA groups were not significantly different from each other on the third and fourth performance tasks. Low and high CA groups were significantly different in all performance areas. No differences were indicated between CA groups on the final examination. Results are discussed relative to the naturalistic nature of the study.     

STUDIES OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COMMUNICATION APPREHENSION AND SELF-ESTEEM

This paper reports research conducted as a part of a continuing program designed to provide empirical delineation of the communication apprehension construct. Five studies are reported which indicate a substantial correlation (r =?.52 to r =?.72) between oral communication apprehension and self-esteem. Results from two college student samples (N = 192 and N = 272), two samples of elementary and secondary teachers (N = 202, N = 384), and a sample of federal employees (N = 211) indicate highly consistent relationships across age groups and occupational types.     

The Use and Consequences of Verbal Influence Strategies During Interpersonal Disagreements

Interpersonal influence refers to the strategies and tactics communicators use to establish, reinforce, or alter one another's cognitions, emotions, and behaviors. It is argued that influence functions to attain instrumental goals, manage the relationship, and preserve desired identities. These three functions guided the development of a categorical system for classifying 36 verbal influence tactics according to six major strategy types applicable to the context of resolving disagreements. Videotaped interactions of 50 married couples were coded for strategy use by eight trained raters. The most frequently used strategies were content validation, self-assertions, and other accusations, whereas content invalidation, self-defense, and other-support received far less use. Correlational results between strategy use and consequences revealed that: (a) males were more persuasive when using content validation and self-assertions and less persuasive when using content invalidation and other-accusations, (b) females were more persuasive when using other-support and less persuasive when using content invalidation, and (c) greater communication satisfaction was experienced by both partners when the other used supportive tactics and did not use accusatory ones. Analyses of couples'behavior suggests the predominant interaction pattern was reciprocal rather than compensatory.     

COMMUNICATION APPREHENSION AND BEHAVIOR: APPLYING A MULTIPLE ACT CRITERIA1

Operating from a model derived from research on the attitude-behavior relationship, a conceptualization is presented which indicts current attempts to select a specific behavior and examine its relationship with a personality characteristic relevant to the field of communication. Evidence is presented demonstrating that the characteristic should predict well a multiple act criteria but not a single act criterion. In addition, an empirical distinction is predicted between apprehension and attitude and a comparison is made between three self-report measures of apprehension.     

RECRUITMENT COMMUNICATION MEDIA: IMPACT ON PREHIRE OUTCOMES

An unanswered question in recruitment research is whether and how the media used to communicate recruitment messages influence important outcomes. Drawing from research and theory on persuasive communication and media richness and features, we propose and test a model of the effects of media and media features (amount of information, opportunities for 2-way communication, personal focus, social presence, symbolism) on communication outcomes (credibility and satisfaction), attitudes, intentions, and behavior associated with joining the organization. Results of an experiment with 989 undergraduate students show that a constant recruitment message delivered via different media (face-to-face, video, audio, text) influenced perceptions of featares, and perceptions of features were related to important pre-hire outcomes.     

AN EMPIRICAL APPRAISAL OF THE PRCA FOR MEASURING ORAL COMMUNICATION APPREHENSION

Since 1970 about 80% of the research on oral communication apprehension has used one of two versions of McCroskey's Personal Report of Communication Apprehension. The original 20-item PRCA was introduced for the purpose of measuring apprehension beyond the traditional public speaking context. Although the PRCA-20 is reliable, some serious criticism of it has centered on its ability to tap interpersonal behavior outcomes. In an attempt to bolster its interpersonal applicability, five “interpersonally-oriented” items were added to form the PRCA-25. The studies reported herein demonstrate that both versions fail to possess sufficient reliable variance to be applicable to contexts other than public settings. In addition, it was found that the interpersonal items are a separate component of the PRCA, and as such, do not justify being treated equal in terms of additivity and, therefore, reduce the construct integrity of the PRCA.     

EXPLICATION AND TEST OF A COGNITIVE MODEL OF COMMUNICATION APPREHENSION: A NEW LOOK AT AN OLD CONSTRUCT

A cognitive model of the processes underlying the arousal of a state of communication apprehension is proposed. This model draws upon current work in cognitive science to specify the nature of the relevant structures and the nature of the processes that operate over those structures. An empirical test of the model indicates strong support in that the interaction of long-term memory contents and perceived evaluative ness of the situation was a significant predictor of anxiety. Additionally, the model allowed the prediction of changes in physiological arousal (heart rate) over time that closely paralleled observed heart rate.