The origins of fear of snakes

In the present study, a questionnaire about the nature and origin of fear of snakes was administered to 60 Phobic, 82 Low Fear and 35 High Fear college students. Phobic and High Fear subjects reported greater fear on a variety of components of snake fear. There was little evidence supporting the role of direct conditioning experiences in the acquisition of fear of snakes. Rather, the results suggested a variety of observational and instructional learning experiences as related to the acquisition of snake fear. Although preparedness for direct conditioning does not seem relevant, a preparedness for observational and instructional learning is possible.     

The origins of height fear: an evaluation of neoconditioning explanations

The present research sought to establish a reliable and valid instrument for assessing the relevance of neoconditioning factors (e.g. latent inhibition, UCS inflation/revaluation, prior fear levels, prior expectancies of harm, fear and pain levels experienced during supposed learning events), in the development of human fear. Fifty-four undergraduate height-fearful students completed the new origins instrument (OQ-II), while 54 matched controls completed a modified version (OQM-II) that examined their prior experiences with heights. In general, few differences between groups were found. Height-fearful and control subjects did not differ on trait anxiety, the frequency of negative encounters with heights, the age at which these events had occurred, prior fear levels, prior expectancies of harm, or reports of UCS inflation/revaluation procedures. However, in a finding directly opposite to that expected from a conditioning account, the mean fear and pain scores reported by subjects who had experienced direct conditioning events were significantly higher in the non-fearful group than in the height-fearful group. These findings are discussed in terms of associative and non-associative models of fear.     

Biased attributions regarding the origins of preferences in a group decision situation

The current research investigated biases in attributions of the origins of others' preferences in a group decision situation. In two experiments, students indicated their preferred alternative in a decision on an important issue in their school, and then explained the bases for preferences of those agreeing and disagreeing with them. Results showed that participants saw preferences of those who agreed as more rationally and less externally based than of those who disagreed. This effect increased with perceived issue importance, when the decision was made by in‐group representatives, when the decision outcome was concordant with their own preference (Study 1), and, on the externality dimension, when their representatives were in the majority when deciding on an important issue (Study 2). Findings have important implications for our understanding of the tolerance of others and acceptance of group decisions, and ultimately, how group members behave and interact. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

DHPG activation of group 1 mGluRs in BLA enhances fear conditioning

Group 1 metabotropic glutamate receptors are known to play an important role in both synaptic plasticity and memory. We show that activating these receptors prior to fear conditioning by infusing the group 1 mGluR agonist, (R.S.)-3,5-dihydroxyphenylglycine (DHPG), into the basolateral region of the amygdala (BLA) of adult Sprague–Dawley rats enhances freezing normally supported by a weak footshock. This effect of DHPG was blocked when it was co-infused with either the general group 1 mGluR1 antagonist, (R,S)-1-aminoindan-1,5 dicarboxylic acid (AIDA), or with the selective mGluR5 antagonist, 2-methyl-6-(phenylethynyl)-pyridine (MPEP). These results support previous findings by Rodrigues and colleagues that mGluR5s in the lateral region of the amygdala make an import contribution to fear conditioning. More importantly, they support the general ideas embedded in the concept of metaplasticity, as per Abraham, and the synaptic-tagging hypothesis per Frey and Morris—that the processes that specify the content of experience can be experimentally separated from those needed to acquire the memory.The last decade has seen an increased appreciation of the view that the plasticity state of neurons—their ability to be modified by experience—is not fixed. Instead, the effect of experience depends on the physiological or biochemical state of the neurons or synapses that receive and store information contained in the experience, and this state is variable. This perspective is captured by the concept called “metaplasticity” (Abraham and Bear 1996; Abraham and Tate 1997; Abraham 2008), which recognizes that prior events can change the general plasticity or modifiability of neurons and synapses that will potentially store information contained in a subsequent target experience. This idea is also embedded in the synaptic-tagging hypothesis (Frey and Morris 1997, 1998) that will be described in some detail in the Discussion section. This view is important because it recognizes that the processes that specify the content of experience can be experimentally separated from those that are needed to store the memory for the experience.As reviewed by Abraham (2008), the range of prior events that can potentially determine a neuron''s state of plasticity is quite large and can be mediated by their effects on many components of the machinery that supports changes in synaptic strength. They include modification in NMDA-receptor function, AMPA-receptor trafficking, neuronal excitability, and epigenetic modifications.One way that the potential for plasticity can be altered is by activation of group 1 metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluR1s and mGlur5s) (Abraham 2008). A number of reports based on the in vitro long-term potentiation (LTP) methodology suggest that activating this class of receptors prior to the delivery of a relatively weak inducing stimulus can transform a normally short-lasting form of LTP into a more persistent form (Cohen and Abraham 1996; Cohen et al. 1998; Raymond et al. 2000). For example, an infusion of (R.S.)-3,5-dihydroxyphenylglycine (DHPG), a group 1 mGluR agonist, into the bathing medium 30 min prior to the delivery of a weak inducing stimulus can significantly enhance the persistence of the resulting LTP, while having no effect on the baseline response (Cohen et al. 1998; Raymond et al. 2000). This effect of DHPG, however, is blocked (Raymond et al. 2000) when its administration is accompanied by an infusion of the group 1 mGluR antagonist, (R,S)-1-aminoindan-1,5 dicarboxylic acid (AIDA).Group 1 mGluRs also have been implicated in fear conditioning. For example, Rodrigues et al. (2002) reported that one subtype, mGluR5, is localized in dendrites and spines in neurons in the lateral nucleus of the amygdala, and fear conditioning can be significantly impaired if the mGluR5 antagonist, 2-methyl-6-(phenylethynyl)-pyridine (MPEP), is infused into the lateral nucleus prior to conditioning.These findings, from the studies of synaptic plasticity and fear conditioning, provide the empirical basis for the hypothesis that motivates the experiments reported here—that the plasticity potential of neurons in the amygdala that support fear conditioning can be increased by activating group 1 mGluRs prior to the conditioning experience.To evaluate this idea, we followed a strategy similar to that used to study the role of mGluRs in LTP (Cohen and Abraham 1996; Cohen et al. 1998; Raymond et al. 2000). In these in vitro LTP experiments, a relatively weak inducing stimulus was used to generate a short-lasting LTP. Infusing the group 1 agonist DHPG prior to the delivery of the inducing stimulus transformed this short-lasting LTP into a more persistent form. Their results suggest that the activation of group 1 mGluR1 receptors independently initiates processes that make an important contribution to long-lasting LTP. To apply this strategy to fear conditioning, we used a very low level of shock—one that by itself produced an almost undetectable level of conditioned fear (as measured by freezing, the innate defensive response of rodents). We then determined if the activation of group 1 mGluRs prior to the conditioning experience would transform this outcome and produce a stronger level of freezing. DPHG was infused into the basolateral region of the amygdala (BLA) to activate the mGluRs.     

Comparison of group and individual cognitive-behavioral therapy in reducing fear of negative evaluation

Previous studies have established the efficacy of group and individual formats of cognitive-behavioral therapy in reducing fear of negative evaluation in social anxiety disorder, but the effectiveness of the group and individual therapies has not been widely assessed. This study was conducted to compare the effectiveness of cognitive-behavior group therapy to individual cognitive-behavioral therapy in social anxiety disorder. 28 patients were randomly allocated to two groups of 14. Each group participated in 12 weekly sessions. The final sample was 22 participants after drop-out. Pretest and posttest data were collected using the Brief Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale and the Beck Depression Inventory-II. Controlling for pretest fear of negative evaluation and depression, cognitive-behavioral group therapy was more effective than individual cognitive-behavioral therapy in reducing fear of negative evaluation, but the clinical significance and improvement rates of the two treatment formats were equivalent.     

Risk-taking and impulsive personality traits in proficient downhill sports enthusiasts

Although past studies have examined how personality traits may motivate participation in high-risk sports, few previous studies have examined impulsive personality correlates with risk-taking within a group of sports enthusiasts. We examined relationships between measures of personality and risk-taking on the slopes as measured by a sport-specific Sensation Seeking Scale in a sample of proficient-level skiers and snowboarders (N = 123, 61% male). Significant correlations were found between risk-taking and multiple traits including Reward Sensitivity, Punishment Sensitivity, and Sensation Seeking, implying that some traits that motivate participation in high-risk sports also lead to more risky behavior while participating in said sports. Rash Impulsivity, though not found to distinguish participants from non-participants in previous studies, did correlate with risk-taking behavior on the slopes. The results of this study show that while some aspects of impulsive personality may motivate risky sport participation, other traits may be related to risky behavior once engaged in the sport.     

The varieties of fear

Conclusion I shall conclude with a methodological moral. I have tried to show that there are several fundamentally different kinds of fear. One is a pure propositional attitude, one is partially a bodily state, and one is a relation between a person and a nonpropositional object. Other emotions come in similar varieties, such as hope and happiness, but with significant differences. The state of happiness, for example, does not entail any particular bodily state or feeling. So one lesson is this: it is hard to generalize about the emotions. Further detailed, analytical studies of particular emotions are needed before a general theory of the emotions can be fruitfully attempted.     

Social identity as social glue: the origins of group loyalty

In 3 experiments, the authors investigated the role of social identity in fostering group loyalty, defined as staying when members can obtain better outcomes by leaving their group. In Experiment 1, high (vs. low) identifiers expressed a stronger desire to stay in the group in the presence of an attractive (vs. unattractive) exit option. Experiments 2 and 3 replicated this basic finding and tested several explanations. The results suggest that high identifiers' group loyalty is better explained by an extremely positive impression of their group membership (group perception) than by a justification of previous investments in the group (self-perception) or their adherence to a nonabandonment norm (norm perception). Hence, social identity seems to act as social glue. It provides stability in groups that would otherwise collapse.     

班级欺凌规范与欺凌行为：群体害怕与同辈压力的中介作用

本文通过两个研究探讨了群体因素中的班级欺凌规范如何通过同辈压力、群体害怕影响欺凌行为的发生。研究1为实验研究, 被试为186名小学高年级学生(M_age = 11.36 ± 0.99岁)。结果表明在不同情境(欺凌/非欺凌)的启动下, 各变量得分均具有显著差异; 进一步分析仅发现同辈压力的中介作用边缘显著。研究2为相关研究, 943名小学高年级及初二学生(M_age = 12.00 ± 1.32岁)填写班级欺凌规范、同辈压力和欺凌行为问卷。HLM分析显示同辈压力在班级欺凌规范与欺凌行为起显著中介作用。     

The origins and function of the reference point in risky group decision making the case of the Cuban missile crisis

This case study explores reference level effects on group decision making during the Cuban missile crisis of 1962. The group is composed of American President John F. Kennedy and his advisers. The results are consistent with much experimental evidence showing that reference levels play an important role in determining preferences. The results also extend the notion of reference-dependent risky choice to the group level, where the group consists of seasoned experts who each have a different role to play within the group and who are dealing with an issue of great importance.