Drive for muscularity and disordered eating among French adolescent boys: a sociocultural model

The pursuit of muscularity is an important body image concern among boys which has been described within sociocultural models of risk for eating disorders. This study explored a sociocultural model of disordered eating in which drive for thinness and pursuit of muscularity were both pathways to disordered eating among French adolescent boys. A sample of 146 adolescents completed a questionnaire assessing drive for thinness, drive for muscularity, media-ideal internalization, appearance comparison, and sociocultural pressure. The model was a good fit to the data and both drive for thinness and the pursuit of muscularity were related to disordered eating. Furthermore, internalization and appearance comparison mediated the relationships between pressure to increase muscle and both drive for muscularity and drive for thinness. Longitudinal research could help clarify the role of the pursuit of muscularity in the development of disordered eating and extreme body shape changing behaviors.     

A MEDIATIONAL MODEL OF AUTONOMY, SELF-ESTEEM, AND EATING DISORDERED ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIORS

This study expands upon existing literature by examining how the relationship between autonomy deficits and low self-esteem may create a psychological environment conducive to the development of eating disordered behaviors. Findings supported a mediational model to account for eating disordered behaviors in 71 college women. In this model, lack of autonomy was related to decreased global self-esteem, which in turn was associated with bulimia, body dissatisfaction, and drive for thinness. Although only tentative and cross-sectional in nature, this study is of particular importance because it links autonomy and self-esteem in a coherent model predictive of eating disordered behaviors in college women. Developmental aspects of eating disorders and treatment implications are discussed.     

Perceived Control, Drive for Thinness, and Food Consumption: Anorexic Tendencies as Displaced Reactance

Although loss of perceived control has been implicated in the development of eating disorders, previous research has not directly tested the relationship between perceived control and food consumption. This study investigated the hypothesis that individuals with anorexic tendencies react to low perceived control by restricting food intake as a means of regaining a sense of control. Forty female undergraduates who scored either low or high on the Drive for Thinness Scale (Garner & Olmsted, 1984) were led to believe they would be participating in two separate studies. Perceived control was experimentally manipulated such that half of the subjects experienced low control and half experienced high control over a social situation. Under the guise of a second experiment, subjects tasted breakfast cereals and completed measures relevant to eating and body image. Results showed that subjects who were high in drive for thinness (DT) who experienced low control ate less sweetened cereal and planned to eat less at dinner than high DT subjects who experienced high control. Low DT subjects were unaffected by the control manipulation. The results are discussed in terms of displaced reactance.     

A comparison of the validity of three scales for the assessment of dietary restraint

The construct validity of Herman and Polivy's Restraint Scale (RS), the restraint factor of the Three Factor Eating Questionnaire (TFEQ-R), and the restraint scale of the Dutch Eating Behavior Questionnaire (DEBQ-R) were investigated by relating these scales to self-reported mean caloric intake per day and to other measures associated with disordered eating and figure consciousness. A factor analysis showed that the three restraint scales measure different components of the restraint construct. A high score on the RS was closely related to consequences of mostly unsuccessful dieting, such as disinhibited eating and weight fluctuations, but not to successful overall caloric restriction in everyday life. High scores on the TFEQ-R and the DEBQ-R represented the more successful dieting behavior component of restraint. The three scales have in common a motivational component of restrained eating, including concerns about shape and weight, and desire for thinness.     

Self-Construction,Cognitive Conflicts,and Disordered Eating Attitudes in Young Women

The aim of this study is to identify cognitive variables that predict disordered eating attitudes in a nonclinical sample composed of 50 female university students. Repertory grid technique was used to assess cognitive features of self-construing and cognitive conflicts. Drive for Thinness and Body Dissatisfaction scales from the Eating Disorder Inventory–2 were used as dependent variables, as previous studies suggested that high scores on these scales are associated with the risk of developing or aggravating eating syndromes. Results suggest that drive for thinness can be associated with cognitive conflicts, whereas body dissatisfaction may be higher for those who construct themselves as inadequate and similar to others. In addition, both dependent variables were predicted by being younger and having a higher body mass index.     

MMPI-2 profiles of women with eating disorders in a Dutch day treatment sample

In this study, we examined the MMPI-2 (Butcher, Dahlstrom, Graham, Tellegen, & Kaemmer, 1989) profiles of 324 Dutch patients with eating disorders at an eating disorder day treatment program. We studied the MMPI-2 profiles in 5 diagnostic eating disorder groups. All diagnostic subgroups showed high mean elevations of the T scores on the same 6 or 7 scales. Remarkable similarities existed between the mean profile configurations. The MMPI-2 distinguished especially in that patients with restricting anorexia nervosa scored lower on one Validity scale (F), two Clinical scales (1 and 2) and several Supplementary and Content scales of the MMPI-2 compared to the other groups. Only on the validity Scale L did they score higher. The MMPI-2 also distinguished patients with the bulimia nervosa purging type who scored higher on Scale 9 and different on several Content and Supplementary scales. We discuss results with regard to other studies of MMPI (Hathaway & McKinley, 1983) and MMPI-2 profiles of women with anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and eating disorder not otherwise specified in inpatient and outpatient settings.     

Boundary Disturbances and Eating Disorder Symptoms

Female graduate students in counseling and clinical psychology retrospectively rated maternal and paternal boundaries in their families of origin. Subscales of the Eating Disorders Inventory-3 were used to assess disordered eating, including drive for thinness, body dissatisfaction, bulimia symptoms, and overall risk. Results indicated that maternal enmeshment and maternal psychological control were related to disordered eating. Further, daughters who reported that their mothers shielded them from parents’ conflict and adult concerns were less likely to report drive for thinness or bulimic tendencies. With respect to paternal boundary problems, paternal infantilization (overprotection) was significantly related to daughters’ drive for thinness.     

Body dissatisfaction,eating disorders,and depression: A developmental perspective

McCarthy (1990) contends that a cultural ideal of thinness (the thin ideal) causes depression and eating disorders to occur more frequently in women than men. She believes eating disorders are a way of coping with depression and hypothesizes that the thin ideal has its greatest impact during puberty when sexual attractiveness becomes important and changes in physical appearance increase the discrepancy between the adolescent girl's actual and ideal body image. The present study used a cross-sectional design of 5th, 8th, and 12th grade males and females (N = 599) to test several predictions from McCarthy's model. As expected, 8th and 12th grade females preferred a thinner than average body shape. They were more dissatisfied with their bodies than males and scored higher on measures of disordered eating. In contrast, before puberty (5th grade) boys were more depressed than their female peers but this pattern was reversed in 8th grade boys and girls. Paralleling changes in depression, disordered eating scores were highest in 8th and 12th grade girls. Both of these findings underscore the role of maturational factors in the onset of eating disorders. Although the sample was ethnically diverse and mainly from middle and low socioeconomic groups, there was a surprisingly high incidence of body dissatisfaction and symptoms of disordered eating. This illustrates the pervasiveness of thinness as a standard of feminine beauty in our society and the damaging effects it can have.     

Is self-esteem the primary predictor of disordered eating?

This study examined whether self-esteem is the primary predictor of disordered eating. A survey measured levels of self-esteem and a variety of other health behaviors in 196 male and 263 female undergraduate students. We conducted stepwise regressions to determine which of several variables (self-esteem, high stress, poor coping skills, maladaptive perfectionism, gender) best predicted disordered eating. The results indicated that self-esteem was the secondary predictor for bulimia, drive for thinness, and body dissatisfaction. Future research should further investigate how self-esteem interacts with other predictor variables to better determine the relationship between self-esteem and disordered eating.     

Establishing appropriate symptomatic control groups for the eating disorders

Two symptomatic control groups for the eating disorders were defined using high and low scores on the Dietary Restraint and Disinhibition scales of the Three Factor Eating Questionnaire. Clinical subjects diagnosed with anorexia and bulimia nervosa were compared with these symptomatic control groups using measures of body weight, bulimic symptoms, and anorexic symptoms. In comparison to the high-Restraint/low-Disinhibition group, anorexic subjects scored higher on measures of eating disorder symptoms but not on Restraint and Disinhibition. The high-Restraint/high-Disinhibition group differed from bulimia nervosa subjects on measures of eating disorder symptoms but did not differ on Restraint and Disinhibition. The results suggested that a control group defined by high Restraint and low Disinhibition formed an appropriate control group for anorexia nervosa. For bulimia nervosa, the most appropriate control group was defined by high Restraint and high Disinhibition.     

Body attitudes and eating behaviors of female clothing sales personnel

Recent research suggests that social standards for ideal female beauty are related to negative body-image and dieting among young women. We hypothesized that women who work in settings that emphasize physical appearance (women's fashion clothing sales) would have more disturbed body attitudes and eating behaviors than college women. Sales personnel (n = 21) and students (n = 25) answered questions about their occupational status, weight, and demographic characteristics, and completed the Body-esteem Scale and the Eating Disorder Inventory. Weight and scores on the two scales were similar in both groups except that sales personnel reported more dissatisfaction with their body parts on the Body dissatisfaction scale of the Eating Disorder Inventory. Among sales personnel, those who perceived their appearance to be of greater importance in their work also reported more concern about dieting and weight, as reflected on the Drive for thinness subscale of the Eating Disorder Inventory. Results are discussed with regard to situational influences on women's body attitudes and their implications for eating behaviors.     

Influence of Mass Media on Body Image and Eating Disordered Attitudes and Behaviors in Females: A Review of Effects and Processes

This article reviews research on the effects of television and magazines on body image and on disordered eating attitudes and behaviors in females. Evidence from different types of studies in the fields of eating disorders, media psychology, health psychology, and mass communication indicates that mass media are an extremely important source of information and reinforcement in relation to the nature of the thin beauty ideal, its importance, and how to attain it. Although considerable research remains to be done, evidence is accumulating that repeated exposure to media and to both direct and indirect (via media's effects on peers, parents, coaches, physicians, etc.) pressures from media to be thin constitute risk factors for body dissatisfaction, concerns over weight and disordered eating behaviors in adolescent girls and young women. To guide further research, as well as the prevention and treatment of disordered eating, we present a figural summary of media effects that integrates moderating and mediating factors such as internalization of the thin beauty ideal, social comparison, and activation of the thinness schema. We argue that risk factor research, prevention, and treatment will benefit from systematic research designed to clarify how the impact of various mass media is shaped by source and receiver/perceiver factors.     

Role of Sexual Orientation and Gender-Related Traits in Disordered Eating

This study was designed to examine the role of both sexual orientation and gender-related personality traits in disordered eating attitudes and behavior, including body dissatisfaction. Self-report measures assessing negative and positive gender traits,body dissatisfaction, drive for thinness, dietary restraint, and bulimic symptoms were administered to 266 participants (64 lesbians, 73 heterosexual women, 69 gay men, and 60 heterosexual men; 85% Anglo-Australian Caucasians, 15% Caucasians from Non-English-speaking backgrounds). Consistent with previous research, gay men scored significantly higher than heterosexual men on body dissatisfaction and dietary restraint, whereas lesbians scored significantly lower in comparison to the heterosexual women on body dissatisfaction, drive for thinness, dietary restraint, and bulimia. For men, the additional amount of variance accounted by the gender traits was significantly higher than that accounted for by sexual orientation. For the women, the gender traits also accounted for an additional significant amount of variance; however, overall the amount of variance accounted for by sexual orientation was greater. However, for both men and women, irrespective of their sexual orientation, it was higher scores on negative femininity that predicted higher levels of disordered eating. These results are consistent with previous studies that have found support for the femininity hypothesis in disordered eating.     

Bulimia nervosa and dietary restraint

Patients with bulimia nervosa were compared with non-bulimic restrained and unrestrained eaters on several questionnaire and interview measures related to eating patterns, preoccupation with dieting and food, and general psychopathology. Bulimic subjects did not differ significantly from non-bulimic restrained eaters on measures of fear of weight gain, dietary restraint, and the Eating Disorders Inventory (EDI) subscales of Drive for Thinness and Body Dissatisfaction, although both groups scored significantly higher on these measures than unrestrained eaters. Subjects with bulimia nervosa differed significantly from both restrained and unrestrained eaters on the Eating Habits Checklist, the Beck Depression Inventory, the EDI total score and Interoceptive Awareness, Introversion and Bulimia subscales, the Three Factor Eating Questionnaire (TFEQ), Disinhibition subscale and the Symptom Checklist 90-revised version. These findings show that bulimic patients may be quite similar to their restrained, non-bulimic counterparts on dietary concern and ideals of slenderness and suggest the importance of including a restrained control group in attempts to isolate the variables that differentiate individuals with the clinical eating disorder from their peers who demonstrate normative discontent about body weight and shape.     

Validation of the Dutch Eating Behavior Questionnaire (DEBQ) in a sample of Chinese adolescents

We sought to validate the Dutch Eating Behavior Questionnaire (DEBQ) in a sample of Chinese adolescents and investigate differences in eating behaviors among Chinese normal weight, overweight, and obese adolescents. Chinese middle and high school students completed the DEBQ, Eating Disorder Inventory-1, and the Self-Control Scale. Result showed that the DEBQ had good internal consistency, test–retest reliability and criterion validity. Furthermore, the obese and overweight adolescents scored significantly higher than normal weight adolescents on three subscales. The DEBQ is effective for assessing eating behaviors in Chinese adolescents.     

Relationships Between Body-Shape Discrepancies With Favored Celebrities and Disordered Eating in Young Women

Disordered eating is linked to body shapes and images presented in the mass media. Favored celebrities may represent a particularly strong source of influence. We examined cross-sectional relationships between women's disordered eating and their perceptions of body-shape differences with favored celebrities. Women between the ages of 18 and 27 rated personal body shapes alongside those of self-selected favored celebrities. Multivariate analyses showed self/celebrity body-shape discrepancies to be linked to EAT-26 diet, bulimia, and oral control scales independent of personal body-shape and self/ideal discrepancies. For bulimia subscale scores, this relationship was moderated by a more favorable perception of the celebrity relative to the self. Celebrities might be important in creating an unrealistic social comparison standard that contributes to disordered eating.     

Age at menarche and digit ratio (2D:4D): relationships with body dissatisfaction, drive for thinness, and bulimia symptoms in women

This study examined the hypothesis that lower prenatal androgen exposure and earlier puberty are associated with more dysfunctional eating attitudes and behaviors. Relationships between both age at menarche (AAM) and 2D:4D (a marker of prenatal androgen exposure), and EDI-2-Body Dissatisfaction, EDI-2-Drive for Thinness, and EDI-2-Bulimia scores, were examined in women using correlations and regressions. Earlier menarche was associated with higher drive for thinness after controlling for BMI and negative affect, but only in women who were not exclusively heterosexual. Higher 2D:4D was associated with higher Bulimia and Body Dissatisfaction scores, but only in exclusively heterosexual women, and relationships disappeared when covariates were controlled. Later AAM and higher 2D:4D were unique predictors of higher Bulimia scores for exclusive heterosexuals when BMI was controlled. These findings suggest future research should examine sexual orientation as a mediator or moderator of prenatal and postnatal organizational hormonal effects on women's disordered eating attitudes and behaviors.     

Who Benefits From What? Drive for Thinness as a Moderator of Responsiveness to Different Eating Disorder Prevention Messages1

This research examined how women respond to different types of messages regarding eat ing disorders, and specifically whether women's degree of drive for thinness moderated their responsiveness to particular messages. In this study, 112 undergraduate women were randomly assigned to receive a condition focusing on either healthy eating or disordered eating. First, and as hypothesized, findings at an immediate posttest revealed that women found the healthy eating condition more enjoyable, personally relevant, and interesting, whereas they found the disordered eating condition more anxiety‐provoking and fear‐inducing. Second, and contrary to predictions, findings at the 3‐month follow‐up indicated that those who were high on drive for thinness were hurt by participation in the disordered eating condition, whereas those who were low on drive for thinness were helped by participation in this condition. Discussion focuses on the theoretical and applied implications of these findings.     

The impact of self-reported pubertal status and pubertal timing on disordered eating in irish adolescents

This paper considers the impact of pubertal status and pubertal timing on disordered eating in Irish adolescents. 1190 boys and 1841 girls completed the Eating Attitudes Test-26, the Eating Disorder Inventory-III and self-report measures of pubertal status and pubertal timing. Regarding pubertal status, greater maturity in girls was associated with increased overall eating concerns, higher drive for thinness and higher levels of body dissatisfaction. In boys, greater maturity was associated with lower drive for thinness and lower body dissatisfaction. Regarding pubertal timing, early-maturing girls showed the most eating concerns, the highest drive for thinness, scored highest on bulimic symptoms and were the most dissatisfied with their bodies. In contrast, late-maturing boys had more bulimic symptoms and more dissatisfaction with their bodies than on-time peers. The findings suggest that puberty itself is a risk factor for disordered eating for girls rather than boys; however, pubertal timing is a risk factor for both. Copyright ? 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and Eating Disorders Association.