Retrieval experience as a modifier of future encoding: another test effect

Research on how individuals monitor their level of comprehension during study paints a picture of learners as being insensitive to many of the factors or conditions of learning that can enhance long-term retention and transfer. In previous research, however, deWinstanley and Bjork (2004) demonstrated that learners--if made sensitive to the memorial benefits of generation in the context of an informative test following study of a text passage in which they had encoded both to-be-read and to-be-generated critical items--then became more effective processors of future to-be-read information presented in a 2nd text passage. In Experiments 1 and 2 of the present research, we explored the potential applicability of this effect by testing whether it could survive certain types of activity-filled delays. In Experiments 3 and 4, we tested whether enhanced processing of contextual information, an encoding strategy that could possibly have been discovered by participants during the testing episode for the 1st text passage, was a potential underlying cause of this effect. Together, our results bring to light an additional benefit of test taking and point to what might be considered necessary and sufficient conditions for leading learners to become more effective processors of future to-be-learned information.     

Updating knowledge about encoding strategies: a componential analysis of learning about strategy effectiveness from task experience

Researchers have argued for age deficits in learning about the effects of encoding strategies from task experience, partly on the basis of absolute accuracy of metacognitive judgments. However, these findings could be attributed to factors other than age differences in learning. Forty older and 40 younger adults participated in 2 study-test trials in which they studied paired associates with imagery or repetition, predicted recall for the items, attempted recall, and postdicted recall. Recall was greater after imagery than repetition, yet this effect was not fully reflected by predictions made on Trial 1. Although both older and younger adults accurately postdicted recall from Trial 1, absolute accuracy of the predictions made on Trial 2 showed little improvement. By contrast, both age groups demonstrated increases in between-person correlations of predictions with recall, which is inconsistent with age deficits in knowledge updating. Thus, both older and younger adults had updated knowledge about the relative effects of the strategies, but such updating was not evident in the absolute accuracy of the predictions.     

Dissociative effects of true and false recall as a function of different encoding strategies

Goodwin, Meissner, and Ericsson (2001 Goodwin, K. A., Meissner, C. A. and Ericsson, K. A. 2001. Toward a model of false recall: Experimental manipulation of encoding context and the collection of verbal reports. Memory & Cognition, 29: 806–819. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) proposed a path model in which elaborative encoding predicted the likelihood of verbalisation of critical, nonpresented words at encoding, which in turn predicted the likelihood of false recall. The present study tested this model of false recall experimentally with a manipulation of encoding strategy and the implementation of the process-tracing technique of protocol analysis. Findings indicated that elaborative encoding led to more verbalisations of critical items during encoding than rote rehearsal of list items, but false recall rates were reduced under elaboration conditions (Experiment 2). Interestingly, false recall was more likely to occur when items were verbalised during encoding than not verbalised (Experiment 1), and participants tended to reinstate their encoding strategies during recall, particularly after elaborative encoding (Experiment 1). Theoretical implications for the interplay of encoding and retrieval processes of false recall are discussed.     

Dissociative effects of true and false recall as a function of different encoding strategies

Goodwin, Meissner, and Ericsson (2001) proposed a path model in which elaborative encoding predicted the likelihood of verbalisation of critical, nonpresented words at encoding, which in turn predicted the likelihood of false recall. The present study tested this model of false recall experimentally with a manipulation of encoding strategy and the implementation of the process-tracing technique of protocol analysis. Findings indicated that elaborative encoding led to more verbalisations of critical items during encoding than rote rehearsal of list items, but false recall rates were reduced under elaboration conditions (Experiment 2). Interestingly, false recall was more likely to occur when items were verbalised during encoding than not verbalised (Experiment 1), and participants tended to reinstate their encoding strategies during recall, particularly after elaborative encoding (Experiment 1). Theoretical implications for the interplay of encoding and retrieval processes of false recall are discussed.     

Individual differences in text comprehension as a function of test anxiety and prior knowledge

This study investigated the relationship between reading comprehension and comprehension monitoring with undergraduates (223 women, 69 men). Further, the effect of test anxiety and of prior knowledge on reading comprehension and on comprehension monitoring was examined in groups of students of equal intellectual ability. Students with high scores on reading comprehension performed better on a comprehension monitoring task as well. Individual differences in reading comprehension with a multiple-choice response format emerged as a function of the interaction between test anxiety and prior knowledge. Students with low prior knowledge and high test anxiety performed worst of all. We found a far less detrimental effect of test anxiety and prior knowledge on monitoring comprehension than on reading comprehension.     

Attitudes towards cancer as a function of experience with the disease: A test of three models

Abstract

The present study develops and tests three models that can account for the relationship between cancer attitudes and experience with the disease. Individuals were classified according to the extent of their experience with cancer: personal experience, familial experience and minimal experience. In three studies, each using a different sample and different method of attitude measurement, it was found that those with personal cancer experience held the most positive attitudes towards cancer, while those with familial cancer experience held the most negative attitudes. These findings are consistent with the predictions of the proposed dual process model. Results are discussed in terms of the importance of understanding the impact that cancer attitudes have on the physical and emotional management of the disease.     

Classifying retrieval strategies as a function of working memory

Strategy selection may help explain performance differences between individuals with high working memory capacity (HWMs) and low working memory capacity (LWMs) (Budd, Whitney, & Turley, (Memory & Cognition, 23, 735–748 1995); Cokely, Kelley, & Gilchrist, (Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 13, 991–997 2006). We compared the independent and spontaneous strategy use of HWMs and LWMs during a category fluency (retrieval) task that required participants to retrieve animal names. HWMs were more successful at the fluency task under normal conditions, but under increased cognitive load, there were no WM-related performance differences. One strategy (i.e., retrieving animals according to their scientific classification) significantly aided performance, irrespective of cognitive load. Under normal conditions, HWMs were more likely to use the effective strategy; however, under load, WM did not predict strategy use. Use of the classification strategy was more strongly related to retrieval performance than was WM. These results suggest that retrieval strategy use is related to WM capacity, and that employing a successful strategy may make up for WM disadvantages during a demanding retrieval task.     

Recognition memory as a function of encoding strategy and stimulus codability.

The primary purpose of this research was to determine how imaginal and verbal encoding strategies intereact with various stimulus characteristics to either enhance or retard recognition; the secondary purpose of these studies was to test the conceptual coding hypothesis of Ellis, 1972. A between-groups multivariate factorial analysis of covariance experiment and a within-subjects multivariate factorial analysis of variance experiment were conducted. In Experiment 1 it was found that low-codability shapes were better recognized under the verbal encoding set rather than the imaginal encoding verbal encoding sets; and high-codability shapes were not better recognized than low-codability shapes. However, in Experiment 2, where instructional set was a within-subjects factor, it was found that low-codability shapes were not better recognized under the verbal encoding set than the imaginal encoding set.     

Regression weights as a function of test length

A battery of pencil-and-paper tests is commonly used for predicting a single criterion. If the score on each test is the number of correct answers, the composite battery score would normally be the sum of the weighted test scores, where the weights are the raw score regression weights. Knowing the reliability of each test, it is possible to alter the lengths of the tests in a manner such that the weights will all be equal. The composite battery score would then simply be the total number of items answered correctly and scoring would be greatly simplified. Such simplification is particularly desirable where the volume of testing is large. Section I of the article outlines the procedure for altering the lengths of the tests, and Section II gives a proof of the method.     

Handedness as a function of test complexity.

Handedness as a function of test complexity was investigated with two tests, Dotting and Tapping-on-squares. For each one three levels of complexity were established by varying radius (Dotting) and square sides (Tapping-on-squares). Administration of the different complexity levels to a total of 310 third and fourth grade boys and girls showed that the rate of left-handedness increased from 6% to 16% with decreasing level of test complexity. It is concluded that optimal classification of handedness is only made possible by maximal levels of test complexity, which have to be established empirically for different populations.     

Differences in semantic encoding as a function of reading comprehension skill

Using a modified Stroop procedure, we examined the extent to which the semantic encoding of a word is governed by the context within which that word appears. Good and poor comprehenders named the color of target words following their reading of either sentences or single words representing the object nouns of the sentences. Target words represented contextually emphasized (appropriate) attributes of the object nouns, nonemphasized (inappropriate) attributes of these nouns, or object attributes not related to these nouns (neutral). For single-word contexts, all subjects exhibited equal semantic interference to appropriate and inappropriate targets, relative to neutral targets. For sentence contexts, however, good comprehenders exhibited semantic interference only to appropriate targets, whereas poor comprehenders again exhibited equal interference to appropriate and inappropriate targets. These findings suggest that differences in comprehension skill may be attributable, at least in part, to fundamental differences in the way in which sentences are semantically encoded.     

Linguistic encoding in short-term memory as a function of stimulus type

In this study, we investigated bases for encoding linguistic stimuli in short-term memory. Past research has provided evidence for both phonological (sound-based) and cherological (sign-based) encoding, the former typically found with hearing subjects and the latter with deaf users of sign language. In the present experiment, encoding capabilities were delineated from encoding preferences, using 58 subjects comprising six groups differing in hearing ability and linguistic experience. Phonologically related, cherologically related, and control lists were presented orally, manually, or through both modalities simultaneously. Recall performance indicated that individuals encode flexibly, the code actually used being biased by incoming stimulus characteristics. Subjects with both sign and speech experience recalled simultaneous presentations better than ones presented orally or manually alone, which reveals the occurrence of enhanced encoding as a function of linguistic experience. Total linguistic experience appeared to determine recall accuracy following different types of encoding, rather than determining the encoding basis used.     

Differential encoding as a function of semantic polarity and form of visual stimulus presentation

The present study investigated the saliency of form of visual stimulus presentation (printed word or picture) and of the semantic evaluative dimension (positive or negative) as encoding attributes for fifth-grade children. Three short-term memory trials within one visual form of presentation or one pole of the evaluative dimension were followed by a fourth short-term memory trial on which the stimulus material was shifted on one or both attributes (experimentals) or held constant (controls). The recall of the experimental groups consistently exceeded that of the control groups on the shift trial, providing evidence for a release from proaetive inhibition and implying the saliency of both the form of visual stimulus presentation and the evaluative polarity of the stimulus concepts as encoding dimensions.     

Boundaries of cognitive performance as a function of age and flight experience

Age and expertise effects on time-sharing performance were examined. Pilots were considered to have an expertise in time-sharing because of their cockpit experience. Ninety pilots and nonpilots performed a battery of cognitive tasks that represented different aspects of piloting. The results revealed that time-sharing performance was age sensitive. However, expertise appeared to have some moderating influence on the age effects. Further, analysis of the overlap of the response distributions from different age groups suggested that age alone was not a definitive discriminator of an individual's time-sharing skill.