Sex roles and depression: A preliminary investigation of the direction of causality

The present study examined the direction of the relation between sex role self-concept and depression. A total of 23 males and 32 females were given the Personal Attributes Questionnaire and the Beck Depression Inventory at two times separated by a 3-month interval. Results of a cross-lagged panel correlational analysis found no evidence for sex role orientation as a cause of depression. Instead, the data suggested that emotional well being precedes self-perceived instrumentality, but the influence of third variables could not be overlooked. The implications of these data are discussed with particular reference to the need for more complex theoretical formulations of the relation between self-perceived instrumentality and adjustment.     

Sex roles and political ambition

This article explores the relationship between political ambition and sex among local officeholders. Based on interviews with men and women municipal legislators, the study examines subjects' background characteristics and behavior in office in relation to political ambition. A discriminant function analysis identifies two underlying dimensions on which the male and female ambitious and non-ambitious groups cluster. The first function, based on characteristics the person brings to office, distinguishes (a) moderately ambitious groups and retiring women from (b) highly ambitious groups and retiring men. The second function which distinguishes (a) ambitious men from (b) ambitious women and retiring men has to do with behavior in office characteristics. The contrast between ambitious women and ambitious men suggests different ways of viewing benefits of political office which have implications for change in the political system.Support for this research was supplied by the Florence Eagleton Grants Program, 1976–1977, Center for the American and Politics, Eagleton Institute of Politics, Rutgers University.     

Sex roles and friendship patterns

The purpose of this study is to examine the relationships among sex, sex role orientation, and friendship. Based on the Bem Sex Role Inventory, 164 participants were categorized as either androgynous (17 males; 29 females), traditional (36 males; 39 females), or undifferentiated (26 males; 17 females) in their sex role orientation. Participants reported the number of close male and female friends, and responded to several questionnaires: interpersonal trust of male and female friends, communal and exchange orientations, affective and activity attributes associated with male and female friends, loneliness, and friendship satisfaction. Results indicate that close friends tended to be same sex, even though females had more close friends overall than did the males. Androgyny was related to characteristics that enhance the development and maintenance of close friendships, such as a communal orientation and positive conceptions of friends, while the undifferentiated orientation was related to less relationship enhancing orientations and a less rewarding interpersonal milieu. The study confirms that sex and sex role orientation are important factors in both quantitative and qualitative aspects of friendship during young adulthood.Portions of this paper were presented at the annual convention of the Southwestern Psychological Association, Houston, Texas, April 13, 1989. We appreciate the extensive help of an anonymous reviewer on earlier versions of this paper.     

Sex roles and nonverbal communication skills

As a step toward understanding sex differences in nonverbal decoding and encoding abilities, the hypothesis that sex-role variables are related to these communication abilities was tested. An analysis was undertaken of 11 studies on the relationship of encoding and decoding abilities to sex roles, including several masculinity and femininity scales, a measure of attitudes toward women, and a questionnaire on sex roles in the home. Although the relationships of the masculinity and femininity measures to decoding were generally weak, more masculine people tended to be better decoders. Patterns also emerged showing that the magnitude of the correlations varied with age group, sex, sex-role scale, and channel of communication. In addition, among women, those who were more liberated according to several indices were better decoders, at least of a woman stimulus person. Differences between the sexes in encoding and decoding abilities were unaffected by partialling out the masculinity and femininity measures. A hypothesis concerning the adaptive uses of nonverbal sensitivity is advanced, as well as a hypothesis concerning overall sex differences in nonverbal communication skills.Part of this research was conducted while the authors held National Science Foundation Graduate Fellowships, and was supported by a National Science Foundation Dissertation Award to the first author and by a grant from the Biomedical Research Support Program, National Institutes of Health, to The Johns Hopkins University. This paper could not have been prepared without the generosity of several colleagues and students who made their unpublished results available. These people are (alphabetically): Bella M. DePaulo, Karen I. Fischer, Judith Harackiewicz, Leonard A. Kusnitz, Carol J. Mills, James G. Simmons, Ann L. Weber, and Miron Zuckerman. In addition, Bert F. Green, Jr., Bella M. DePaulo, and Marylee C. Taylor provided many appreciated suggestions and criticisms on an earlier draft.     

Sex roles,stress, and distress: A study of person by situation contingency

Literature on the relationship between sex roles and adjustment has suggested that masculine traits, rather than the androgynous interaction of masculine and feminine traits, are associated with positive adjustment. Studies with noncollege student populations, however, raise questions as to the generalizability of these findings. Suggestions that sex role traits are associated with particular defensive styles raise the possibility that the sex role-adjustment link is mediated by situational factors. The present study assessed sex role orientation, depression, hostility, and stress in 105 students of nursing. Femininity predicted positive vocational adjustment within the group, masculinity was associated with lower levels of depression, and femininity predicted lower hostility. Within the sex role orientations studied, androgynous nurses reported lower depression and vocational stress than their undifferentiated counterparts. It is suggested that feminine sex roles, promoting an internalization of threat, aid positive adjustment in settings marked by joint instrumental and interpersonal demands.     

Sex roles,social roles,and clinical judgments of mental health

This study examined whether clinical psychologists expect similar behavior from males and females in contexts that are traditionally male vs. female. In a modification of the task by Broverman et al. (Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1970, 34, 1–7), practicing psychologists (N=104) rated the appropriate behavior of a mature, healthy, socially competent man in the home environment, man in the work environment, woman in the home environment, or woman in the work environment. There was a significant effect of environment, with ratings closer to the pole traditionally labeled masculine in the work environment (p<.001). However, clinicians did not assign significantly different ratings to men vs. women. These data call into question the continued use of feminine and masculine to describe behavior, and emphasize the need to specify the environmental context in research on sex role stereotypes.This report is based on an undergraduate honors thesis conducted by the second author under the sponsorship of the first. Order of authorship is alphabetical.     

Sex roles and chivalry: Some conditions of gratitude to altruism

In a quasi-field experiment 479 subjects (beneficiaries) were observed as experimenters (benefactors) performed an altruistic act for them. Their responses were classified mainly into shows of gratitude, such as saying Thank you. Such amenities are expected in a traditional model of courtly chivalry, i.e., the door-opening ceremony. Experimenters were randomly assigned in a three-factor design, setting × sex of experimenter × sex of subject, with approximately 60 subjects per cell. The town-gown setting (university vs. community library) unexpectedly produced no difference. Traditional pairs (i.e., male benefactors and female beneficiaries) elicited most thanks. Estimated physical attractiveness of subject interacted strikingly with sex in affecting level of thanks shown. Most thankful were plain female beneficiaries for whom male benefactors held doors open. Overall, the data conformed best with a traditional model but also hinted at anomie (tradition in transition).This study owes its inspiration in part and its execution in toto to Rex Perry, Nancy Bird, Mike Bright, Lisa Campbell, Jill Dalley, Mike Edwards, Billy Holbert, Amy Kuehler, Gwen LeBaron, Jerry Minx, Saundra Morris, Kristi Prewitt, Kathy Rice, Ed Sergeant, Joy Sherrell, Ivey Suber, Kerry Trimoli, Kay Wallace, Marty Watkins, and Eva Wood.     

Sex roles and yielded/expressed self-control

Previous research has indicated that stereotypically masculine behaviors characterize leadership and that stereotypically feminine traits are devalued. However, this research may be questioned on the basis that the sex stereotype measures employed were not appropriate for the managerial role and that the rating task was not clearly defined. The present study attempts to deal with these concerns by asking groups to rate two different managers: the one they would wish to work for or the one they would wish to have working for them. As hypothesized, those who described the supervisors who they wished to have working for them valued masculine traits significantly more than those who described the supervisor they would like to work for. In all cases, however, stereotypically sexneutral traits were most highly valued.Reprint requests may be sent to either author at the Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, North Carolina 28223. Preliminary data from this investigation were presented at the Southeastern Psychological Association Convention, March 1985. The authors wish to thank David Gilmore for his comments on an earlier version of the paper, and Debra Schwartz for her efforts in the data collection and analysis stages of the project.     

Sex roles, gender, and fear

Male and female college students classified as masculine, feminine, androgynous, or undifferentiated on the Bem (1974) Sex Role Inventory (N = 199) were given the Wolpe (1969) Fear Inventory. Significant differences in average fear scores were seen between men and women and between the four sex-role categories, with sex role and gender contributing equally to the variability. The argument is raised here that excessive fearfulness or fearlessness might be as much a product of sex-role conditioning as a product of gender.     

Sex roles among married and unmarried couples

This article investigates sex roles among married and cohabiting couples. Male career precedence was more firmly entrenched both attitudinally and behaviorally among the former. Cohabiting women in couples planning to marry generally gave attitudinal support to their partner's career precedence, but were delaying the translation of these attitudes into concrete actions until after marriage. Cohabitors not planning to marry were essentially equalitarian, but the males in these couples were also less successful in career attainment than the other males. Male career precedence, the decision to marry, conventional allocation of household tasks, and male career success were all concomitant, although the exact causality could not be confidently established.The data for this article were collected for a doctoral dissertation in sociology at Temple University, Philadelphia, Pa.     

Sex roles and fertility in college women

A study was conducted to examine the relationship of sex-role acceptance to actual and desired fertility. Two samples of women (105 undergraduates and 40 members of a women's organization) were administered the Bem Sex-Role Inventory and a questionnaire which assessed the women's behavioral acceptance of traditional female sex roles. The behavioral measures were sex-typed college major for the undergraduates and employment status for the women's organization sample. In addition, vocational interests were measured and related to fertility for the women's organization sample. Multiple regression analyses indicated that behavioral measures of sex-role acceptance accounted for more variance in predicting desired and actual fertility than did the Bem Sex-Role Inventory.     

Sex roles and the psychiatric referral process

Three studies were undertaken to explore the relationship between sex-role standards and the psychiatric referral process. Based on observations from previous literature it was hypothesized that children who exhibited behavioral characteristics inappropriate to their sex would be more likely to be referred to psychiatric facilities than would children who exhibited behavioral characteristics appropriate to their sex. The first study examined the records of an outpatient child-guidance clinic. In accord with the hypothesis, it was found that more boys than girls were referred for being emotional or passive and more girls than boys were referred for being defiant and verbally aggressive. In the two subsequent studies, samples of parents and graduate students in clinical and school psychology read hypothetical case studies in which identical behavior problems were attributed either to a boy (Bob) or to a girl (Barbara). The data from the two samples indicated that the child exhibiting the behavior inappropriate to his/her sex was seen as more severely disturbed, as more in need of treatment, and as having a less successful future than the child exhibiting sex-role appropriate behaviors.The first phase of the research was done in collaboration with Merrily Kaplan, whose ideas contributed much to the thrust of the rest of the research. The second phase is based on the first author's undergraduate honors thesis which was supported by NIMH Undergraduate Research Fellowship MH 08027. The authors gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Dorothy Bianco and William Cutler in distributing questionnaires, the cooperation of the New Britain Child Guidance in permitting us to examine their records, and the helpful comments of Benjamin Braginsky, Lorelei Brush, Abigail Stewart, and David Winter, who read an earlier draft of this paper.     

The psychological reactions to infertility: Sex roles and coping styles

The purpose of this study was to determine if sex roles would predict the extent to which people experience problems in coping with infertility. Based on questionnaire responses of 164 medical patients, it was found that patients scoring higher in masculinity or androgyny reported fewer problems in coping with infertility, as measured by self-esteem and body image. It was also found that groups of infertile, formerly infertile, and fertile patients were no different in levels of coping. It was suggested that physicians might be able to identify patients at risk for poorer coping with infertility by screening new referrals for self-esteem and historical-background variables.     

Sex differences in the determination of adolescent aspirations: A review of research

This article reviews research on sex differences in the educational and occupational orientations of adolescents. Because the aspirations and expectations of adolescents are predictive of subsequent adult attainment, these variables are important mediating factors in the process by which individuals of the two sexes come to occupy different educational and occupational positions in adulthood. Adolescent boys aspire to a higher level of education than girls, and the occupational choices of the two sexes are highly sex-stereotyped. Factors influencing levels of adolescent aspiration are reviewed, including socioeconomic background, academic ability, number of siblings, parental encouragement, mother's employment, academic performance, peer aspirations, dating, and participation in school activities. Although sex differences exist in the process by which both educational and occupational aspirations are formed, they are greater with respect to occupational than educational aspirations.     

Sex differences in perceptions of familial and occupational roles

Women's lower achievement level in the professions is explained by the Multiple Role Negotiation perspective as resulting from the difficulty in balancing the “active” or demanding roles of wife/mother and a high level professional role. The Value Difference perspective, on the other hand, explains this differential achievement as resulting from differences in degree to which women value professional roles and their familial role, with perceptions of “demand” serving only as “excuses” to mask values. To explore the assumptions of each position three research questions are posed and 33 first-year students in a professional program are surveyed. The findings reveal that neither males nor females perceive the female familial role as the “more active” one; females, however do anticipate less career advancement, value the higher level role less, and also perceive it as a more demanding role than the lower level role.     

Sex roles and soap operas: What adolescents learn about single motherhood

This study investigated the contribution of daytime television soap operas to the perception of the roles and lifestyle of the single mother. The perceptions of soap opera viewers and nonviewers were compared using 163 junior and senior high students as subjects, 9% of whom were ethnic minorities. In particular, viewers perceive that single mothers have good jobs, are relatively well-educated and do not live in poverty. Further, they perceive that their babies will be as healthy as most babies and that their babies will get love and attention from adult men who are friends of their mothers. To the degree that these perceptions contribute to the gender role socialization of adolescents, we are faced with a problematic situation. Particularly in light of the fact that soap operas are increasingly targeting the adolescent viewer, the image portrayed on soap operas and the impact it appears to have is of great concern.     

Current sociological research in Canada: Views of a journal editor

On the basis of submissions to the Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology and the Annual Meetings of the Canadian Sociological and Anthropological Association, sociology in Canada may be described as social problem oriented, empirical, and atheoretical. There is a strong interest in research on ethnicity and on immigrant adjustment, reflecting a continuity with earlier periods of sociology in Canada, and on deviance and social control. Research on stratification, social mobility, and the family has been relatively neglected. As sociology in Canada shares the interests of “mainline” sociology, it has not escaped criticism or attempts to change its direction. A general model, identifying influences on the formulation of investigative issues in sociology, is used to interpret these criticisms and responses to them.