Contextual cuing based on spatial arrangement of color

Previous studies have demonstrated that, in visual search, repetition of a target's "context" significantly improves search performance (contextual cuing; Chun & Jiang, 1998). Context in those studies was defined as either spatial configuration or featural combination. In the present work, we demonstrate that repeating the spatial arrangement of object colors (conjunction of spatial configuration and featural combination) also leads to contextual cuing (Experiment 1). Experiments 2 and 3 rule out the possibility that the contextual cuing we find in Experiment 1 is caused only by the spatial configuration of color patches. Experiment 4 rules out the possibility that it is caused only by featural combination. Experiments 5 and 6 demonstrate that color-arrangement-based contextual cuing is an unconscious process. Experiments 7 and 8 demonstrate that contextual cuing seems to be more effective onchromatic (hue) variation than on achromatic (luminance) variation. In sum, our results demonstrate that contextual cuing is not merely associated learning in separate domains; it is a more integrated process than has perhaps been appreciated.     

How visual and semantic information influence learning in familiar contexts

Previous research using the contextual cuing paradigm has revealed both quantitative and qualitative differences in learning depending on whether repeated contexts are defined by letter arrays or real-world scenes. To clarify the relative contributions of visual features and semantic information likely to account for such differences, the typical contextual cuing procedure was adapted to use meaningless but nevertheless visually complex images. The data in reaction time and in eye movements show that, like scenes, such repeated contexts can trigger large, stable, and explicit cuing effects, and that those effects result from facilitated attentional guidance. Like simpler stimulus arrays, however, those effects were impaired by a sudden change of a repeating image's color scheme at the end of the learning phase (Experiment 1), or when the repeated images were presented in a different and unique color scheme across each presentation (Experiment 2). In both cases, search was driven by explicit memory. Collectively, these results suggest that semantic information is not required for conscious awareness of context-target covariation, but it plays a primary role in overcoming variability in specific features within familiar displays. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).     

空间工作记忆负载对真实场景情境提示效应的影响

重复的画面布局能够促进观察者对目标项的搜索 (情境提示效应)。本研究采用双任务范式,分别在视觉搜索任务的学习阶段 (实验2a) 和测验阶段 (实验2b) 加入空间工作记忆任务, 并与单任务基线 (实验1)进行比较, 考察空间工作记忆负载对真实场景搜索中情境线索学习和情境提示效应表达的影响。结果发现: 空间负载会增大学习阶段的情境提示效应量, 同时削弱测验阶段的情境提示效应量, 而不影响情境线索的外显提取。由此可见, 真实场景中情境线索的学习和提示效应的表达均会受到有限的工作记忆资源的影响, 但情境线索提取的外显性不变。     

Using real-world scenes as contextual cues for search

Research on contextual cueing has demonstrated that with simple arrays of letters and shapes, search for a target increases in efficiency as associations between a search target and its surrounding visual context are learned. We investigated whether the visual context afforded by repeated exposure to real-world scenes can also guide attention when the relationship between the scene and a target position is arbitrary. Observers searched for and identified a target letter embedded in photographs of real-world scenes. Although search time within novel scenes was consistent across trials, search time within repeated scenes decreased across repetitions. Unlike previous demonstrations of contextual cueing, however, memory for scene-target covariation was explicit. In subsequent memory tests, observers recognized repeated contexts more often than those that were presented once and displayed superior recall of target position within the repeated scenes. In addition, repetition of inverted scenes, which made the scene more difficult to identify, produced a markedly reduced rate of learning, suggesting semantic information concerning object and scene identity are used to guide attention.     

Categorical implicit learning in real-world scenes: evidence from contextual cueing

The present study examined the extent to which learning mechanisms are deployed on semantic-categorical regularities during a visual searching within real-world scenes. The contextual cueing paradigm was used with photographs of indoor scenes in which the semantic category did or did not predict the target position on the screen. No evidence of a facilitation effect was observed in the predictive condition compared to the nonpredictive condition when participants were merely instructed to search for a target T or L (Experiment 1). However, a rapid contextual cueing effect occurred when each display containing the search target was preceded by a preview of the scene on which participants had to make a decision regarding the scene's category (Experiment 2). A follow-up explicit memory task indicated that this benefit resulted from implicit learning. Similar implicit contextual cueing effects were also obtained when the scene to categorize was different from the subsequent search scene (Experiment 3) and when a mere preview of the search scene preceded the visual searching (Experiment 4). These results suggested that if enhancing the processing of the scene was required with the present material, such implicit semantic learning can nevertheless take place when the category is task irrelevant.     

Implicit scene learning is viewpoint dependent

When novel scenes are encoded, the representations of scene layout are generally viewpoint specific. Past studies of scene recognition have typically required subjects to explicitly study and encode novel scenes, but in everyday visual experience, it is possible that much scene learning occurs incidentally. Here, we examine whether implicitly encoded scene layouts are also viewpoint dependent. We used the contextual cuing paradigm, in which search for a target is facilitated by implicitly learned associations between target locations and novel spatial contexts (Chun & Jiang, 1998). This task was extended to naturalistic search arrays with apparent depth. To test viewpoint dependence, the viewpoint of the scenes was varied from training to testing. Contextual cuing and, hence, scene context learning decreased as the angular rotation from training viewpoint increased. This finding suggests that implicitly acquired representations of scene layout are viewpoint dependent.     

Awareness in contextual cuing with extended and concurrent explicit tests

The term contextual cuing refers to improved visual search performance with repeated exposure to a configuration of objects. Participants use predictive cues-derived from learned associations between target locations and the spatial arrangement of the surrounding distractors in a configuration--to efficiently guide search behavior. Researchers have claimed that contextual cuing can occur implicitly. The present experiments examined two explicit measures--generation and recognition. In Experiment 1, we found that contextual cuing information was consciously retrievable when the number of trials used in a generation test was increased, and the results also suggested that the shorter tests that were used previously were not statistically powerful enough to detect a true awareness effect. In Experiment 2, concurrent implicit and explicit (generation and recognition) tests were employed. At a group level, learning did not precede awareness. Although contextual cuing was evident in participants who were selected post hoc as having no explicit awareness, and for specific configurations that did not support awareness, we argue that awareness may nevertheless be a necessary concomitant of contextual cuing. These results demonstrate that contextual cuing knowledge is accessible to awareness.     

真实场景视觉搜索中的背景线索效应特点与机制

背景线索效应揭示了个体在视觉搜索过程中对刺激之间具有的稳定空间关系（刺激间不变的相对空间位置）的学习能够提高搜索效率。本文基于经典背景线索效应在内隐习得空间布局的机制下结合真实场景视觉搜索的相关理论，对真实场景背景线索效应的实验范式、学习性质与内容进行归纳梳理，将真实场景视觉搜索中影响背景线索效应的视觉信息分为低水平物理特征及高水平语义信息两个维度进行论述。虽然当前研究涉及真实场景背景线索效应在不同场景维度信息的加工机制，但对于发挥作用的场景信息类别以及作用阶段还较少涉及，未来研究仍需进一步的探讨。     

Contextual cuing by global features

In visual search tasks, attention can be guided to a target item--appearing amidst distractors--on the basis of simple features (e.g., finding the red letter among green). Chun and Jiang's (1998) contextual cuing effect shows that reaction times (RTs) are also speeded if the spatial configuration of items in a scene is repeated over time. In the present studies, we ask whether global properties of the scene can speed search (e.g., if the display is mostly red, then the target is at location X). In Experiment 1A, the overall background color of the display predicted the target location, and the predictive color could appear 0, 400, or 800 msec in advance of the search array. Mean RTs were faster in predictive than in nonpredictive conditions. However, there was little improvement in search slopes. The global color cue did not improve search efficiency. Experiments 1B-1F replicated this effect using different predictive properties (e.g., background orientation-texture and stimulus color). The results showed a strong RT effect of predictive background, but (at best) only a weak improvement in search efficiency. A strong improvement in efficiency was found, however, when the informative background was presented 1,500 msec prior to the onset of the search stimuli and when observers were given explicit instructions to use the cue (Experiment 2).     

Attentional guidance of the eyes by contextual information and abrupt onsets.

Contextual cuing is a memory-based phenomenon in which previously encountered global pattern information in a display can automatically guide attention to the location of a target (Chun & Jiang, 1998), leading to rapid and accurate responses. What is not clear is how contextual cuing works. By monitoring eye movements, we investigated the roles that recognition and guidance play in contextual cuing. Recognition does not appear to occur on every trial and sometimes does not have its effects until later in the search process. When recognition does occur, attention is guided straight to the target rather than in the general direction. In Experiment 2, we investigated the interaction between memory-driven search (contextual cuing) and stimulus-driven attentional capture by abrupt onsets. Contextual cuing was able to override capture by abrupt onsets. In contrast, onsets had almost no effect on the degree of contextual cuing. These data are discussed in terms of the role of top-down and bottom-up factors in the guidance of attention in visual search.     

Contextual guidance of eye movements and attention in real-world scenes: the role of global features in object search

Many experiments have shown that the human visual system makes extensive use of contextual information for facilitating object search in natural scenes. However, the question of how to formally model contextual influences is still open. On the basis of a Bayesian framework, the authors present an original approach of attentional guidance by global scene context. The model comprises 2 parallel pathways; one pathway computes local features (saliency) and the other computes global (scene-centered) features. The contextual guidance model of attention combines bottom-up saliency, scene context, and top-down mechanisms at an early stage of visual processing and predicts the image regions likely to be fixated by human observers performing natural search tasks in real-world scenes.     

场景知觉中物体加工的背景效应

在场景中加工物体信息时, 与物体相伴随的背景会影响对物体的加工。这种物体加工的背景效应在很多的研究中得到了证实。场景知觉中的背景效应有不同的表现, 对于场景中物体识别和背景的关系, 研究者从功能独立、相互作用和背景引导等理论角度给予了解释。其次, 自然场景材料和非自然场景材料所提供的背景信息不同, 研究者从不同的刺激水平探讨了这二者之间的背景效应存在的差异。同时, 随着技术的进步, 研究者也在探讨场景知觉过程中物体加工背景效应的生理机制, 并发现了一些与物体识别的背景效应有关的脑区定位。这些相关的研究为深入了解人是如何知觉和加工真实而复杂的环境提供了新的研究内容和视角。     

The influence of color on the perception of scene gist

In 3 experiments the authors used a new contextual bias paradigm to explore how quickly information is extracted from a scene to activate gist, whether color contributes to this activation, and how color contributes, if it does. Participants were shown a brief presentation of a scene followed by the name of a target object. The target object could be consistent or inconsistent with scene gist but was never actually present in the scene. Scene gist activation was operationalized as the degree to which participants respond "yes" to consistent versus inconsistent objects, reflecting a response bias produced by scene gist. Experiment 1 demonstrated that scene gist is activated after a 42-ms exposure and that the strength of the activation increases with longer presentation durations. Experiments 2 and 3 explored the contribution of color to the activation of scene gist. The results revealed that color has an influence across a wide variety of scenes and is directly associated with scene gist.     

Semantic memory for contextual regularities within and across scene categories: Evidence from eye movements

When encountering familiar scenes, observers can use item-specific memory to facilitate the guidance of attention to objects appearing in known locations or configurations. Here, we investigated how memory for relational contingencies that emerge across different scenes can be exploited to guide attention. Participants searched for letter targets embedded in pictures of bedrooms. In a between-subjects manipulation, targets were either always on a bed pillow or randomly positioned. When targets were systematically located within scenes, search for targets became more efficient. Importantly, this learning transferred to bedrooms without pillows, ruling out learning that is based on perceptual contingencies. Learning also transferred to living room scenes, but it did not transfer to kitchen scenes, even though both scene types contained pillows. These results suggest that statistical regularities abstracted across a range of stimuli are governed by semantic expectations regarding the presence of target-predicting local landmarks. Moreover, explicit awareness of these contingencies led to a central tendency bias in recall memory for precise target positions that is similar to the spatial category effects observed in landmark memory. These results broaden the scope of conditions under which contextual cuing operates and demonstrate how semantic memory plays a causal and independent role in the learning of associations between objects in real-world scenes.     

Diagnostic colors mediate scene recognition

In this research, we aim to ground scene recognition on information other than the identity of component objects. Specifically we seek to understand the structure of color cues that allows the express recognition of scene gists. Using the L*a*b* color space we examined the conditions under which chromatic cues concur with brightness to allow a viewer to recognize scenes at a glance. Using different methods, Experiments 1 and 2 tested the hypothesis that colors do contribute when they are diagnostic (i.e., predictive) of a scene category. Experiment 3 examined the structure of colored cues at different spatial scales that are responsible for the effects of color diagnosticity reported in Experiments 1 and 2. Together, the results suggest that colored blobs at a coarse spatial scale concur with luminance cues to form the relevant spatial layout that mediates express scene recognition.     

Part‐set cuing of texts,scenes, and matrices

In four experiments, we extended the study of part‐set cuing to expository texts and pictorial scenes. In Experiment 1, recall of expository text was tested with and without part‐set cues in the same order as the original text; cues strongly impaired recall. Experiment 2 repeated Experiment 1 but used cues in random order and found significant but reduced impairment with cuing. Experiments 3 and 4 examined the part‐set cuing of objects presented in a scene or matrix and found virtually no effect of cuing. More objects were recalled from the scene than from the matrix, indicating that the scene's organization aided memory, but the cues did not assist recall. These results extend the domains in which part‐set cues have either impaired or failed to improve recall. Implications for education and eyewitness accounts are briefly considered.     

Evidence for preserved representations in change blindness

People often fail to detect large changes to scenes, provided that the changes occur during a visual disruption. This phenomenon, known as "change blindness," occurs both in the laboratory and in real-world situations in which changes occur unexpectedly. The pervasiveness of the inability to detect changes is consistent with the theoretical notion that we internally represent relatively little information from our visual world from one glance at a scene to the next. However, evidence for change blindness does not necessarily imply the absence of such a representation---people could also miss changes if they fail to compare an existing representation of the pre-change scene to the post-change scene. In three experiments, we show that people often do have a representation of some aspects of the pre-change scene even when they fail to report the change. And, in fact, they appear to "discover" this memory and can explicitly report details of a changed object in response to probing questions. The results of these real-world change detection studies are discussed in the context of broader claims about change blindness.     

物体拓扑性质对背景线索效应的影响及其加工机制

背景线索效应是指在视觉搜索中由于场景的重复曝光而产生的行为便利。而以往研究关注于刺激的欧式性质所代表的属性信息对背景线索效应的影响, 然而在视知觉加工过程中扮演重要角色的拓扑性质对背景线索效应的影响仍缺乏相关实证研究。因此, 研究采用视觉搜索任务, 通过操控不同场景中刺激的拓扑性质或欧式性质的变化, 考察拓扑性质与欧式性质两种属性信息对背景线索效应的调制。结果发现：(1)拓扑性质和欧式性质与目标之间的联结关系均可促进行为反应, 获得背景线索效应; (2)视觉学习机制对拓扑性质的重复性更加敏感, 并且拓扑性质与目标之间联结关系的稳定性相对于欧式性质与目标之间的联结关系稳定性对于背景线索效应的获得具有更为重要的意义。     

Object-intrinsic oddities draw early saccades

The authors investigated whether anomalous information in the periphery of a scene attracts saccades when the anomaly is not distinctive in its low-level visual properties. Subjects viewed color photographs for 8 s while their eye movements were monitored. Each subject saw 2 photographs of different scenes. One photograph was a control scene in which familiar objects appeared in their canonical form. In the other picture, objects were altered in a way that rendered them deviant without introducing any obvious changes in low-level visual saliency. In Experiment 1, these alterations involved rotating an object in an unnatural fashion (e.g., an inverted head on a portrait, a truck parked on its front end). In Experiment 2, colors were distributed over objects in a way that was either reasonable or anomalous (e.g., a green cup vs. a green hand). Subjects fixated the anomalous items earlier (both in time and in order of fixations) than the nondistorted objects, suggesting that violations of canonical form are detected peripherally and can affect the likelihood of fixating an item.