Organization and predictive power of general and relationship-specific attachment models: one for all, and all for one?

Given recent evidence for multiple attachment models, we examined the organization and predictive power of general and relationship-specific attachment representations in two samples using two distinct measures of attachment models. With regard to associations among relationship-specific models, peer models (romantic partner and friend) and parental models (mother and father) were more similar to each other than to any other models, and anxiety/self-model representations were more consistent across relationships than avoidance/other-model representations. With regard to links between general and specific models, romantic and friend models made the strongest and independent contributions to general models, and romantic relationship involvement moderated the importance of romantic models to general models. With regard to differential predictive power of multiple models, general, romantic partner, and mother attachment made unique contributions to well-being indicators; relationship outcomes, however, were only predicted by individuals' corresponding relationship-specific models. Implications for the measurement and conceptualization of adult attachment are discussed.     

The Role of Network Support and Interference in Women's Perception of Romantic,Friend, and Parental Relationships

This study examined the association between support/interference from the best friend and closest parent to women's (a) satisfaction with the parent–daughter relationship, (b) satisfaction with the friendship, and (c) love for the romantic partner. The respondents (n = 162 females; 84% Caucasian, 1% Asian American, 10% Hispanic, 4% African American, and 1% Multiracial) completed a questionnaire packet to assess each of the factors. Results revealed that romantic love was unrelated to friend support, friend interference, or parental interference, but positively related to parental support. Parent support was a significant correlate of parent satisfaction, and a similar pattern emerged between friend support/friendship satisfaction. Further, best friend support moderated the relationship between friend interference and friendship satisfaction, such that interference was negatively related to satisfaction in low support conditions. Overall, the results suggested that network reactions to romance played a limited role in romantic affection, but were more strongly associated with network satisfaction.     

Working models of romantic attachment and the subjective quality of social interactions across relational contexts

Two diary studies examined the effects of domain‐specific representations of romantic relationships (assessed using the Relationship Questionnaire in Study 1 and the Revised Experiences in Close Relationships questionnaire in Study 2) on the subjective quality of social interactions across four relational contexts: those with a romantic partner, family member, platonic friend, or acquaintance/other. In both studies, domain‐specific romantic attachment, particularly attachment avoidance, was more strongly related to subjective experiences of social interactions involving a romantic partner than those with family members, platonic friends, or acquaintances/others. These results complement previous diary research using earlier categorical measures of attachment and elaborate upon the contextual effects of the attachment behavioral system in naturally occurring social interactions with different relational partners. The conditions under which working models of different relationship domains should influence interpersonal functioning are discussed, and a context‐congruence hypothesis of attachment effects, which encompasses the current findings and generates further predictions, is detailed.     

The impact of adult attachment on partner and self‐attributions and relationship quality

This study tested the relationships between mental the models of attachment, the attributions romantic couples make for their own and their partners' behaviors, and relationship quality. Participants (n = 352) who were currently involved in a romantic relationship completed multiple measures of attachment, attributions, and relationship quality. Results revealed that secure people reported less maladaptive attributions than insecure people. In addition, structural model analyses indicated that attachment model of the self (but not the model of others) had both a direct and an indirect effect, mediated by attributions made for negative partner behavior, on relationship satisfaction. Attributions made for self‐ and partner behaviors overlapped to a great extent, implying an attributional style underlying this unique response pattern. These findings suggest that a positive model of self is a valuable personal resource that enhances adaptive attributions, and hence, leads to high levels of relationship quality.     

Saving graces: Impact of partner support and maternal attachment on partner attachments in an individualistic and a collectivist context

The current study investigated the relationships between current attachment to mother and attachment to romantic partners, and the role of current partner support and culture as moderators of that relationship. University students who were currently in a romantic relationship were recruited from Hong Kong and USA, and completed measures on attachment styles and partner support. Results showed that maternal attachment anxiety was correlated with romantic attachment anxiety; maternal attachment avoidance was correlated with romantic attachment avoidance, but this linkage varied by level of current partner support. Romantic attachment avoidance was also associated with current partner support, but this linkage was stronger for HK Chinese than for Americans. These results are discussed in terms of how interpersonal and personality factors promoted by culture can affect the developmental course of romantic relationships.     

Do automatic reactions elicited by thoughts of romantic partner, mother, and self relate to adult romantic attachment?

Three studies tested the expectation that automatic reactions elicited by the mental representation of one's current romantic partner, mother, and self relate to adult romantic attachment. Adult romantic attachment was assessed using multiple measures, and individual differences in automatic reactions were assessed by the Implicit Association Test (IAT). Studies 1 and 2 showed that automatic reactions elicited by thoughts of current romantic partner, but not by thoughts of self, were related to adult romantic attachment assessed at a specific (i.e., within one's current romantic relationship) and general level (i.e., across all romantic relationships). The pattern of results was stronger among individuals identified as attachment-schematic. Studies 2 and 3 showed that automatic reactions elicited by thoughts of one's mother were related to adult romantic attachment assessed at a general level. In all three studies, results did not differ depending on how adult romantic attachment was conceptualized (four styles vs. two dimensions).     

Is it harmful to me or to us? A dyadic analysis of Chinese young adults' dysfunctional individuation and romantic relationship satisfaction

This study aimed at examining how romantically involved Chinese young adults' dysfunctional individuation was associated with their and their partners' perceptions of romantic relationship satisfaction. We recruited 296 Chinese couples who were currently in heterosexual romantic relationships at the university. The couples completed self-report measures of their dysfunctional individuation and relationship satisfaction. Results from the cross-sectional actor–partner interdependence model (APIM) indicated that (a) for both genders, actor effects existed: Chinese young adults' dysfunctional individuation was negatively associated with their romantic relationship satisfaction; (b) in terms of partners' effects, women's dysfunctional individuation was negatively associated with men's perceptions of relationship satisfaction; but (c) men's dysfunctional individuation was not significantly associated with women's perceptions of relationship satisfaction. The findings were the first to reveal the actor and partner effects of dysfunctional individuation on romantic relationship satisfaction. The study results provided practical implications regarding how young adults can have satisfying romantic relationships.     

情侣依恋与情感投入：性别的调节作用

考察情侣依恋、情感投入和性别之间的关系。结果发现,承诺和满意度与焦虑依恋和逃避依恋相关显著,对两种依恋预测作用显著。性别调节作用仅存在于承诺和满意度与焦虑依恋的关系中:男生的承诺与焦虑依恋关系较强;女生的满意度与焦虑依恋关系较强。承诺和满意度与逃避依恋的关系没有性别差异。焦虑依恋和逃避依恋相对独立。性别对承诺和满意度与焦虑依恋和逃避依恋的关系中有不同调节作用。     

The Compatibility of Ideal and Real Romantic Partner Characteristics,Attachment to Partner and Relationship Satisfaction Among Indian Women

This study examined the compatibility between the characteristics of ideal and real romantic partners, attachment to partner (defined by two categories—avoidance and anxiety) and relationship satisfaction of (N = 272) women involved in close heterosexual relationships. As hypothesized, higher compatibility of ideal and real romantic partner characteristics was related to lower levels of avoidance and anxiety and higher levels of relationship satisfaction. This study also revealed that the three-factor model for ideal partner (partner warmth-trustworthiness, vitality-attractiveness, and status-resources), designed by Fletcher, Simpson et al. (1999) was not fully suitable to Indian women; there were five major dimensions, which defined what women used as standards to evaluate ideal partners. The study showed that: older women more than younger ones desired external and family—related attributes of ideal partner. The results suggest that ideals may be very important for satisfying relationships and secure connection with the romantic partner. The cultural differences in evaluative dimensions for ideal partner needs further investigation.     

Mutual Grooming in Human Dyadic Relationships: An Ethological Perspective

Despite its widespread practice among primates writ large, social scientists have given mutual grooming among humans little attention. This research provides an important first step in describing mutual grooming among humans. A scale was developed to measure self-reported giving and receiving of grooming. In Study 1, 184 female and 94 male participants first indicated their closest emotional relationship (for example, romantic partner, best friend, etcetera). They then completed the grooming measure pertaining to that emotionally close target person. Finally, they completed indices of relationship trust, relationship satisfaction, and parental/familial affection. Individuals who focused on their romantic partners (N = 134) reported more mutual grooming than individuals who focused on other types of relationships. Relationship satisfaction, previous experience of familial affection, and trust were positively correlated with mutual grooming for romantically involved individuals. Study 2 (N = 71 heterosexual couples) explored psychological correlates of mutual grooming within romantic dyads. Individuals with more promiscuous attitudes and those who scored high on the anxiety subscale of an adult attachment style measure reported grooming their partners most frequently. Findings were consistent with several proposed functions of grooming: (a) potential parental-investment indicator, (b) developing trust, and (c) courtship/flirtation—all of which play roles in pair-bonding. At first glance, humans may not appear to groom each other with the same fervor as other primates. However, we posit that humans are, in actuality, groomers par excellence.     

Mutual Grooming in Human Dyadic Relationships: An Ethological Perspective

Despite its widespread practice among primates writ large, social scientists have given mutual grooming among humans little attention. This research provides an important first step in describing mutual grooming among humans. A scale was developed to measure self-reported giving and receiving of grooming. In Study 1, 184 female and 94 male participants first indicated their closest emotional relationship (for example, romantic partner, best friend, etcetera). They then completed the grooming measure pertaining to that emotionally close target person. Finally, they completed indices of relationship trust, relationship satisfaction, and parental/familial affection. Individuals who focused on their romantic partners (N = 134) reported more mutual grooming than individuals who focused on other types of relationships. Relationship satisfaction, previous experience of familial affection, and trust were positively correlated with mutual grooming for romantically involved individuals. Study 2 (N = 71 heterosexual couples) explored psychological correlates of mutual grooming within romantic dyads. Individuals with more promiscuous attitudes and those who scored high on the anxiety subscale of an adult attachment style measure reported grooming their partners most frequently. Findings were consistent with several proposed functions of grooming: (a) potential parental-investment indicator, (b) developing trust, and (c) courtship/flirtation—all of which play roles in pair-bonding. At first glance, humans may not appear to groom each other with the same fervor as other primates. However, we posit that humans are, in actuality, groomers par excellence.     

Close Relationships and Happiness Among Emerging Adults

The present investigation examined the role of multiple close relationships (mother, father, best friend, and romantic partner, if any) in happiness among emerging adults with and without a romantic partner. The results for those without a partner (n = 152) revealed that only the relationship experiences with mother and best friend were predictive of happiness. On the other hand, the findings for those with a partner (n = 159) showed that only three factors, namely mother–child relationship quality, romantic relationship quality and conflict were predictive of happiness. The results for this group also suggested that romantic relationship quality was protective of best friendship conflict; moreover, best friendship quality did not buffer the negative impact of romantic partner conflict on happiness, suggesting a less important role of best friends in happiness. In other words, the findings suggest that when emerging adults are involved in a romantic relationship, friends’ importance in happiness might be less pronounced or not pronounced at all. The results were discussed in light of the literature and suggestions were made for future research.     

情绪分享和感知恋人回应对亲密关系满意度的影响

研究通过问卷星收集了150对异性恋情侣的情绪分享、感知恋人回应、亲密关系满意度的数据,并采用行动者-对象互依模型进行统计分析。结果显示：（1）情绪分享通过感知恋人回应的中介作用影响亲密关系满意度。女性的积极情绪分享与男性的消极情绪分享直接正向影响自身亲密关系满意度。（2）男性的积极情绪分享正向影响女性的亲密关系满意度。研究揭示了亲密关系中情绪分享和感知恋人回应对关系满意度的影响特点。     

Disclosure of Personal Problems, Self-Esteem, and the Facilitativeness of Friends and Lovers

The relationship between disclosure of personal problems, self-esteem, and Rogers' facilitative qualities of unconditional acceptance, empathy, and congruence in a casual friend, the closest friend of the same and opposite sex, and the romantic partner, was investigated in 104 females and 19 males (pooled together). They completed the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, a shortened Barrett-Lennard Relationship Inventory, and a two-item index of disclosure of personal problems. Self-esteem was most strongly positively correlated with the facilitative qualities in the romantic partner, followed by the casual friend. Disclosure of personal problems was also positively related to these facilitative qualities. When the facilitativeness of the romantic relationship was controlled through partial correlation, the positive correlation between self-esteem and disclosure of personal problems was reduced to near zero, while that between self-esteem and the facilitativeness of the casual friend was little affected.     

Attachment styles and other predictors of relationship satisfaction in dating couples

A sample of 186 dating couples completed questionnaires in order to examine the relevance of attachment styles, romantic beliefs, self-esteem, and gender roles to relationship satisfaction. The aim was to assess whether male and female anxiety over abandonment and comfort with closeness, and interactions among them, predicted satisfaction beyond the contribution of the other variables. Using multiple-regression analysis, it was found that attachment styles successfully predicted satisfaction, after controlling for romantic beliers, self-esteem, and gender roles. Both partners were particularly dissatisfied when either partner suffered high anxiety over abandonment or low comfort with closeness. Implications for gender roles, relationship satisfaction, and attachment styles are discussed.     

Attachment,trust, and satisfaction in relationships: Investigating actor,partner, and mediating effects

Romantic relationship dissatisfaction has been cited as a primary reason for seeking mental health services (H. M. Foran, M. A. Whisman, & S. R. H. Beach, 2015). An increasing number of studies have revealed the importance of romantic attachment in understanding relationship satisfaction (M. Mikulincer & P. R. Shaver, 2016). This study aims to assess dyadic trust as a possible mediator of the relation between insecure romantic attachment and relationship satisfaction within a Canadian community sample of 199 heterosexual couples. Results revealed significant actor and partner effects. Specifically, male and female attachment avoidance, as well as male attachment anxiety, predicted lower dyadic trust, which in turn predicted lower relationship satisfaction. These results add to the current literature, suggesting important gender differences in the effects attachment has on overall relationship satisfaction.     

Towards an integrative attachment‐based model of relationship functioning

Based on attachment theory, this study developed a theory‐based model of heterosexual relationship functioning that examined both proximal and distal factors and both actor and partner effects. A particular focus was on the underexplored issue of double‐mediated effects between attachment orientation and relationship satisfaction. Data were collected from a community sample of 95 cohabiting and married couples with a mean age of 39.30 years. Participants completed measures of attachment, commitment, provision of partner support, trust, intimacy, destructive conflict management, and relationship satisfaction. The hypothesized model was largely supported. The association between attachment orientation and relationship satisfaction was mediated through a series of actor and partner variables. No gender differences were found across actor paths; however, differences were found in partner effects for men and women. The model has important implications for relationship researchers and practitioners.     

Relationship social comparisons in dating and marital relationships: Adding relationship social comparison interpretations

ABSTRACT

How an individual interprets a relationship social comparison may have important implications for the self and one’s relationship. We asked whether these interpretations significantly mediated the relation between the manipulated social comparison direction and relationship satisfaction, relationship commitment, satisfaction with life, and happiness for both dating (Studies 1 and 2) and married (Study 2) individuals. Participants were randomly assigned to make an upward or downward comparison to a friend’s romantic relationship and completed measures of their interpretations, relationship quality, satisfaction with life, and happiness. For both dating and married individuals, there were indirect effects of manipulated social comparison direction through the interpretations for all dependent variables. Although there were some differences in mediation for married and dating individuals, the effect sizes were not significantly different.     

Gender Differences and Similarities in Strategies for Managing Conflict with Friends and Romantic Partners

Using hypothetical vignettes, we investigated the extent to which gender differences in conflict-management strategies depended on the relationship context of a same-gender friendship vs. a romantic relationship. Associations between conflict-management strategies, goals and gender-typed traits also were assessed. Men (131) and women (203) undergraduate students (19–25?years) from a state university in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States participated. To assess expressive and instrumental personality traits, participants completed the Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ; Spence and Helmreich 1978). Participants also rated their endorsement of communal and agentic goals and strategies for managing hypothetical conflicts presented in the “Peer Conflict Management Questionnaire.” This questionnaire, created for the purposes of this study, consisted of 4 vignettes that portrayed hypothetical conflicts with a friend and a romantic partner. Results showed that women were more likely than men to endorse communal strategies when managing conflict with a same-gender friend, but not with a romantic partner. Women were more likely than men to endorse agentic strategies for managing conflict with a romantic partner, but not with a same-gender friend. For conflicts with a same-gender friend, communal goals, but not expressive traits or gender, predicted communal strategy endorsement. For conflicts with a romantic partner, gender and agentic goals predicted agentic strategies; instrumental traits did not. Implications for understanding consequences of gender-typed relationship processes are discussed. The contextual specificity of gender differences and similarities are emphasized.     

Direct and Indirect Aggression: Relationships as Social Context

The studies reported in this paper examined the effect of social context—target gender and target relationship—on reports of direct and indirect aggression. In Study 1, participants completed the Richardson Conflict Response Questionnaire (RCRQ; Richardson & Green, 2003 ), which measured their direct and indirect aggression behavior in response to anger. Participants also selected a relationship partner to complete the RCRQ with reference to their own (i.e., participants') behavior. In Study 2, participants completed the RCRQ with reference to their behavior in response to anger with a romantic partner, a same-sex friend, and an opposite-sex friend. In both studies, relationship with aggression target was an important determinant of aggression, with more direct aggression occurring in romantic relationships, and more indirect aggression occurring in friendship relationships.