项目功能差异在跨文化人格问卷分析中的应用

利用IRT的等级模型调查了中日两组被试关于SHIBA简易人格量表中“环境敏感性”的项目功能差异(DIF)的现状。研究发现：（1）量表中DIF的项目比例大(3/4);（2）DIF与项目内容、阈值有关而与区分度大小关系不大;（3）DIF项目间的日方特征曲线较之中方有较强的整合性。该研究利用DIF研究结果对跨文化的人格比较作了新尝试。最后提出了关于深化DIF研究的新课题     

Differential item functioning in an international 360-degree assessment: Evidence of gender stereotype,environmental complexity,and organizational contingency

This research used logistic regression to model item responses from a popular 360-degree-for-development survey used in a leadership development programme given to middle and upper level European managers in Brussels. The survey contained 106 items on 16 scales. The model used gender of ratee and rater group to identify items that exhibited differential item functioning (DIF). The rater groups were self, boss, peer, and direct report. The sample consisted of 356 survey families where a survey family consisted of a matched set of four surveys: one self, one boss, one peer, and one direct report. The sample contained 88% male and 12% female raters. The sample contained 1424 total surveys. The procedure for flagging items exhibiting differential functioning used effect size computed from Wald chi-square statistics rather than statistical significance, resulting in fewer flagged items. One item exhibited rating anomalies due to the gender of the ratee; 55 items exhibited DIF attributable to rater group. The apparent effect of the DIF was small with each item. An examination of the maximum likelihood parameter estimates suggested the rater group DIF was the result of either hierarchical complexity or organizational contingency. The DIF due to gender conformed to prior expectations of gender-related stereotypical interpretations. This research further suggested that DIF due to environmental complexity or organizational contingency could be a naturally occurring phenomenon in some 360-degree assessment, and that the interpretation of some 360-degree feedback could need to include the potential for such DIF to exist.     

Cross-country gender DIF in PISA science literacy items

This study investigated gender based differential item functioning (DIF) in science literacy items included in the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2012. Prior research has suggested presence of such DIF in large scale surveys. Our study extends the empirical literature by examining gender based DIF differences at the country level in order to gain a better overall picture of how cultural and national differences affect occurrence of uniform and nonuniform DIF. Our statistical results indicate existence of widespread gender based DIF in PISA with estimates of percentage of potentially biased items ranging between 2 and 44% (M = 16, SD = 9.9). Our reliance on nationally representative country samples allow these findings to have wide applicability.     

Examining the Differential Item Functioning of the Rosenberg Self‐Esteem Scale Across Eight Countries1

We examined the differential item functioning (DIF) of Rosenberg's (1965 ) Self‐Esteem Scale (RSES) and compared scores from U.S. participants with those from 7 other countries: Canada, Germany, New Zealand, Kenya, South Africa, Singapore, and Taiwan. Results indicate that DIF was present in all comparisons. Moreover, controlling for latent self‐esteem, participants from individualistic countries had an easier time reporting high self‐esteem on self‐competence‐related items, whereas participants from communal countries had an easier time reporting high self‐esteem on self‐liking items ( Tafarodi & Milne, 2002 ). After adjusting for DIF, we found larger mean self‐esteem differences between the countries than observed scores initially indicated. The suitability of the RSES, and the importance of examining DIF, for cross‐cultural research are discussed.     

Are cross-cultural comparisons of personality profiles meaningful? Differential item and facet functioning in the Revised NEO Personality Inventory

Measurement invariance is a prerequisite for confident cross-cultural comparisons of personality profiles. Multigroup confirmatory factor analysis was used to detect differential item functioning (DIF) in factor loadings and intercepts for the Revised NEO Personality Inventory (P. T. Costa, Jr., & R. R. McCrae, 1992) in comparisons of college students in the United States (N = 261), Philippines (N = 268), and Mexico (N = 775). About 40%-50% of the items exhibited some form of DIF and item-level noninvariance often carried forward to the facet level at which scores are compared. After excluding DIF items, some facet scales were too short or unreliable for cross-cultural comparisons, and for some other facets, cultural mean differences were reduced or eliminated. The results indicate that considerable caution is warranted in cross-cultural comparisons of personality profiles.     

Gender bias and construct validity in vocational interest measurement: Differential item functioning in the Strong Interest Inventory

Item response theory was used to address gender bias in interest measurement. Differential item functioning (DIF) technique, SIBTEST and DIMTEST for dimensionality, were applied to the items of the six General Occupational Theme (GOT) and 25 Basic Interest (BI) scales in the Strong Interest Inventory. A sample of 1860 women and 1105 men was used. The scales were not unidimensional and contain both primary and minor dimensions. Gender-related DIF was detected in two-thirds of the items. Item type (i.e., occupations, activities, school subjects, types of people) did not differ in DIF. A sex-type dimension was found to influence the responses of men and women differently. When the biased items were removed from the GOT scales, gender differences favoring men were reduced in the R and I scales but gender differences favoring women remained in the A and S scales. Implications for the development, validation and use of interest measures are discussed.     

Analysis of the gender variable in the EDTC using differential item functioning techniques

The aim of this work is to analyze the gender differences in the scales of a recently constructed test: the so-called EDTC. This test measures the following traits: sensation seeking, fearlessness, and impulsivity. Gender differences will be studied using Differential Item Functioning (DIF) techniques, in order to determine whether these differences are true differences in the assessed dimensions or if, on the contrary, they are the result of a mere artefact of the measuring instrument used. The methods used to study DIF are standardization, SIBTEST, logistic regression, Lord's chi 2 test, and indices based on the DFIT model. Despite the fact that some items with DIF exist, the gender differences observed seem to be the result of true differences in the measured personality constructs and they don't seem to be artificially produced by a bias in the test items.     

Analysis of School Context Effects on Differential Item Functioning Using Hierarchical Generalized Linear Models

This article considers and illustrates a strategy to study effects of school context on differential item functioning (DIF) in large-scale assessment. The approach employs a hierarchical generalized linear modeling framework to (a) detect DIF, and (b) identify school-level correlates of the between-group differences in item performance. To illustrate, I investigated (a) whether any of the civic skills items used in the U.S. Civic Education Study of the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement displayed ethnic–racial DIF, and (b) the extent to which the ethnic–racial DIF was related to teacher-reported opportunity to learn (OTL) major civic-related topics. The results indicated that 3 of the 13 items displayed ethnic–racial DIF. After adjusting for OTL, two of the three flagged items ceased to exhibit DIF. Implications of this approach are discussed.     

Illustration of MIMIC-Model DIF Testing with the Schedule for Nonadaptive and Adaptive Personality

This research provides an example of testing for differential item functioning (DIF) using multiple indicator multiple cause (MIMIC) structural equation models. True/False items on five scales of the Schedule for Nonadaptive and Adaptive Personality (SNAP) were tested for uniform DIF in a sample of Air Force recruits with groups defined by gender and ethnicity. Uniform DIF exists when an item is more easily endorsed for one group than the other, controlling for group mean differences on the variable under study. Results revealed significant DIF for many SNAP items and some effects were quite large. Differentially-functioning items can produce measurement bias and should be either deleted or modeled as if separate items were administered to different groups. Future research should aim to determine whether the DIF observed here holds for other samples.     

ASSESSING THE EFFECT OF COHORT,GENDER, AND RACE ON DIFFERENTIAL ITEM FUNCTIONING (DIF) IN AN ADAPTIVE TEST DESIGNED FOR MULTI-AGE GROUPS

Differential item functioning (DIF) statistics were computed using items from the Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT)-Reading Comprehension subtest for children of the same age group (ages 7 through 12 respectively). The pattern of observed DIF items was determined by comparing each cohort across age groups. Differences related to race and gender were also identified within each cohort. Characteristics of DIF items were identified based on sentence length, vocabulary frequency, and density of a sentence. DIF items were more frequently associated with short sentences than with long sentences. This study explored the potential limitation in the longitudinal use of items in an adaptive test.     

Predicting black and white differential item functioning in verbal analogy performance

Differential item functioning (DIF) is one technique for comparing ethnic populations that test makers employ to help ensure the fairness of their tests. The purpose of this ethnic comparison study is to investigate factors that may have a significant influence on DIF values associated with 217 SAT and 234 GRE analogy items obtained by comparing large samples of Black and White examinees matched for total verbal score. In one study, five significant regression predictors of ethnic differences were found to account for approximately 30% of the DIF variance. A second study replicated these findings. These significant ethnic comparisons are interpreted as consistent with a cultural/contextualist framework although competing explanations involving social-economic status and biological contributions could not be ruled out. Practical implications are discussed.     

汉语词汇测验中的项目功能差异初探

该文运用两种不同的方法对实际的汉语词汇测验中的３６个词汇进行了ＤＩＦ探测。对于１４００多劬的初三学生分别作了男女生与城郊学生间的比较。在男女组分析中检出７个属于一致性ＤＩＦ的项目;对于城郊学生组经两种方法同时确定的ＤＩＦ项目有７个,其中５个是一致性ＤＩＦ,２个是非一致性ＤＩＦ的项目。该文还讨论了产生ＤＩＦ的可能因素。     

Differential item functioning by sex and race in the Hogan Personality Inventory

The authors examined measurement bias in the Hogan Personality Inventory by investigating differential item functioning (DIF) across sex and two racial groups (Caucasian and Black). The sample consisted of 1,579 Caucasians (1,023 men, 556 women) and 523 Blacks (321 men, 202 women) who were applying for entry-level, unskilled jobs in factories. Although the group mean differences were trivial, more than a third of the items showed DIF by sex (38.4%) and by race (37.3%). A content analysis of potentially biased items indicated that the themes of items displaying DIF were slightly more cohesive for sex than for race. The authors discuss possible explanations for differing clustering tendencies of items displaying DIF and some practical and theoretical implications of DIF in the development and interpretation of personality inventories.     

中国少数民族考生与外国考生HSK成绩的公平性分析

该研究利用项目功能差异(Differential Item Functioning,简称DIF)理论,对HSK考生中不同两个群体——外国人和中国国内的少数民族,进行题目的反应分析。考查HSK的题目是否存在不利于某一群体。具体做法：采用MH和SIBTEST方法检测DIF,利用标准化的离散分析方法和SIBTEST的项目束分析法鉴别DIF的真伪,并寻找造成DIF的原因。由数据分析的结果可知,HSK(初、中等)A卷对对外国考生和中国国内的少数民族考生存在一些有DIF的题目。     

Identification of Differential Item Functioning in Multiple-Group Settings: A Multivariate Outlier Detection Approach

We focus on the identification of differential item functioning (DIF) when more than two groups of examinees are considered. We propose to consider items as elements of a multivariate space, where DIF items are outlying elements. Following this approach, the situation of multiple groups is a quite natural case. A robust statistics technique is proposed to identify DIF items as outliers in the multivariate space. For low dimensionalities, up to 2–3 groups, a simple graphical tool is derived. We illustrate our approach with a reanalysis of data from Kim, Cohen, and Park (1995) on using calculators for a mathematics test.     

Uncovering Substantive Patterns in Student Responses in International Large-Scale Assessments—Comparing a Latent Class to a Manifest DIF Approach

In this study, we contrast results from two differential item functioning (DIF) approaches (manifest and latent class) by the number of items and sources of items identified as DIF using data from an international reading assessment. The latter approach yielded three latent classes, presenting evidence of heterogeneity in examinee response patterns. It also yielded more DIF items with larger effect sizes and more consistent item response patterns by substantive aspects (e.g., reading comprehension processes and cognitive complexity of items). Based on our findings, we suggest empirically evaluating the homogeneity assumption in international assessments because international populations cannot be assumed to have homogeneous item response patterns. Otherwise, differences in response patterns within these populations may be under-detected when conducting manifest DIF analyses. Detecting differences in item responses across international examinee populations has implications on the generalizability and meaningfulness of DIF findings as they apply to heterogeneous examinee subgroups.     

Recursive Partitioning to Identify Potential Causes of Differential Item Functioning in Cross-National Data

Differential item functioning (DIF) assessment is key in score validation. When DIF is present scores may not accurately reflect the construct of interest for some groups of examinees, leading to incorrect conclusions from the scores. Given rising immigration, and the increased reliance of educational policymakers on cross-national assessments such as Programme for International Student Assessment, Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study, and Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS), DIF with regard to native language is of particular interest in this context. However, given differences in language and cultures, assuming similar cross-national DIF may lead to mistaken assumptions about the impact of immigration status, and native language on test performance. The purpose of this study was to use model-based recursive partitioning (MBRP) to investigate uniform DIF in PIRLS items across European nations. Results demonstrated that DIF based on mother's language was present for several items on a PIRLS assessment, but that the patterns of DIF were not the same across all nations.     

Optimal Items for Assessing Parental Involvement across Different Groups During Middle Childhood

Various definitions and different approaches for assessing the complex construct of parental involvement (PI) have led to inconsistent findings regarding the impact of PI on child development. To date, limited information is available regarding the measurement invariance of PI measures across time and groups (e.g., children’s gender, ethnicity, and socio-economic status), leaving a concern that group differences in PI might reflect item bias instead of true differences in PI. The present study aimed to obtain a set of optimal items for measuring PI from kindergarten through the elementary school years and investigate whether they could be used for parents from different groups. A Rasch measurement model was implemented to investigate item difficulty, step calibrations, and measurement invariance (differential item functioning; DIF, here). The results from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 1998–1999 data set showed that 20 items can be used to measure three dimensions of PI—namely school/home involvement, family educational investment, and family routines—across four time points. Administrative time, children’s gender, ethnicity, and social economic status showed different levels of effect on item difficulty for half of these items. Practitioners and researchers should be cautious when using these items and are suggested to freely estimate the item parameters of DIF items as well as add more items to the PI scale to improve reliability.     

Differential item functioning on the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire is minimal in demographically matched meditators and nonmeditators

A recent study of the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire reported high levels of differential item functioning (DIF) for 18 of its 39 items in meditating and nonmeditating samples that were not demographically matched. In particular, meditators were more likely to endorse positively worded items whereas nonmeditators were more likely to deny negatively worded (reverse-scored) items. The present study replicated these analyses in demographically matched samples of meditators and nonmeditators (n = 115 each) and found that evidence for DIF was minimal. There was little or no evidence for differential relationships between positively and negatively worded items for meditators and nonmeditators. Findings suggest that DIF based on items' scoring direction is not problematic when the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire is used to compare demographically similar meditators and nonmeditators.     

Improvement in Detection of Differential Item Functioning Using a Mixture Item Response Theory Model

Usually, methods for detection of differential item functioning (DIF) compare the functioning of items across manifest groups. However, the manifest groups with respect to which the items function differentially may not necessarily coincide with the true source of the bias. It is expected that DIF detection under a model that includes a latent DIF variable is more sensitive to this source of bias. In a simulation study, it is shown that a mixture item response theory model, which includes a latent grouping variable, performs better in identifying DIF items than DIF detection methods using manifest variables only. The difference between manifest and latent DIF detection increases as the correlation between the manifest variable and the true source of the DIF becomes smaller. Different sample sizes, relative group sizes, and significance levels are studied. Finally, an empirical example demonstrates the detection of heterogeneity in a minority sample using a latent grouping variable. Manifest and latent DIF detection methods are applied to a Vocabulary test of the General Aptitude Test Battery (GATB).