Can Changes in Differential Dropout Rates Reduce Adverse Impact? A Computer Simulation Study of a Multi‐wave Selection System

A simulation was used to explore the effects of variations in the rate at which applicants drop out of selection processes on racial differences in selection outcomes. Archival data was used to simulate a realistic range of selection scenarios in which test score differences between groups and selection ratios varied. The basis for dropping out was manipulated in two separate studies. Study 1 simulated dropout decisions that occurred at random within racial subgroups; in this study, dropout rates of minority versus White candidates were varied. Study 2 examined dropout decisions that occurred as a function of test scores. Results from both studies showed that mean test score differences between White and minority applicants have the largest influence on adverse impact. Interventions designed to reduce the tendency of minority applicants to withdraw from selection are likely to have, at best, small effects on the adverse impact of selection tests.     

School discrimination and the high school dropout: a case for adolescent advocacy

The literature supports the theory that high school dropouts are unable to find employment when they leave school, and that girls who dropout are more likely than boys to return. It was hypothesized that schools may not want to take back students who had once dropped out of school. To investigate the schools' response to dropouts trying to return, three actors were used to portray a male dropout, a female dropout and a parent of a dropout. Fifteen schools were contacted, to determine the differences in response to each actor. The results indicate that schools were more likely to accept the child who is represented by the parent, and that schools reacted more favorably to the parent. The results are discussed and specific recommendations made for program and practice.     

Textural effects in perceived pointing of ambiguous triangles

Five experiments examined the influence of textural stripes on perceived pointing of ambiguous (equilateral) triangles. Reaction times for discriminating specific directions of pointing were measured for plain triangles and for triangles containing stripes that were either coincident with or perpendicular to one of the three possible directions of pointing. Perceptual interference occurred when the stripes biased a direction other than one specified by the discrimination task. The magnitude of the interference decreased (a) as the environmental salience of the specified direction increased and (b) as the spatial frequency of the stripes increased. Further results indicated that this frequency effect is relative to the size of the triangle; it is not determined by absolute (retinal) frequency. Stripes in the ground region surrounding the triangle also produced interference. However, this interference decreased as the region around the triangle was cleared of stripes. The results are discussed in terms of factors that determine the qualitative and quantitative nature of the interference effect, particularly symmetry and spatial frequency.     

Recovery of weak factor loadings in confirmatory factor analysis under conditions of model misspecification

This article presents the results of two Monte Carlo simulation studies of the recovery of weak factor loadings, in the context of confirmatory factor analysis, for models that do not exactly hold in the population. This issue has not been examined in previous research. Model error was introduced using a procedure that allows for specifying a covariance structure with a specified discrepancy in the population. The effects of sample size, estimation method (maximum likelihood vs. unweighted least squares), and factor correlation were also considered. The first simulation study examined recovery for models correctly specified with the known number of factors, and the second investigated recovery for models incorrectly specified by underfactoring. The results showed that recovery was not affected by model discrepancy for the correctly specified models but was affected for the incorrectly specified models. Recovery improved in both studies when factors were correlated, and unweighted least squares performed better than maximum likelihood in recovering the weak factor loadings.     

Distress tolerance as a predictor of early treatment dropout in a residential substance abuse treatment facility

A large percentage of individuals who enter residential substance abuse treatment drop out before completing treatment. Given that early treatment dropout places individuals at an increased risk for relapse, identifying the mechanisms underlying treatment dropout would have several important theoretical and clinical implications. In the current study, the authors examined levels of psychological and physical distress tolerance as a predictor of early treatment dropout in a residential substance abuse treatment facility. In a sample of 122 individuals entering a residential substance abuse treatment facility, level of psychological distress tolerance was predictive of early treatment dropout above and beyond relevant self-report variables. There was no relationship between physical distress tolerance and early treatment dropout. Implications for future studies and treatment development or modification are discussed.     

Triggering memory recovery: Effects of direct and incidental cuing

The present study examined forgetting and recovery of narrative passages varying in emotional intensity, using what we refer to as the “dropout” method. Previous studies of this dropout procedure have used word lists as to-be-remembered material, but the present experiments used brief story vignettes with one-word titles (e.g., “Torture”, “Insects”). These vignettes showed a strong dropout forgetting effect in free recall. Both text and picture cues from the vignettes eliminated the forgetting effect on a subsequent cued recall test. Vignette-related pictures in an incidental picture naming task, however, triggered little recovery of initially forgotten vignettes, as shown on a post-test. The results extend findings of large forgetting and memory recovery effects to materials that are more naturalistic than word lists. The findings also show that picture cues, which trigger strong memory recovery effects on a direct test of memory, had little effect on recovery when cues were encountered incidentally.     

Estimating age change in list recall in asset and health dynamics of the oldest-old: the effects of attrition bias and missing data treatment

Average change in list recall was evaluated as a function of missing data treatment (Study 1) and dropout status (Study 2) over ages 70 to 105 in Asset and Health Dynamics of the Oldest-Old data. In Study 1 the authors compared results of full-information maximum likelihood (FIML) and the multiple imputation (MI) missing-data treatments with and without independent predictors of missingness. Results showed declines in all treatments, but declines were larger for FIML and MI treatments when predictors were included in the treatment of missing data, indicating that attrition bias was reduced. In Study 2, models that included dropout status had better fits and reduced random variance compared with models without dropout status. The authors conclude that change estimates are most accurate when independent predictors of missingness are included in the treatment of missing data with either MI or FIML and when dropout effects are modeled.     

Participant dropout as a function of survey length in internet-mediated university studies: implications for study design and voluntary participation in psychological research

Internet-mediated research has offered substantial advantages over traditional laboratory-based research in terms of efficiently and affordably allowing for the recruitment of large samples of participants for psychology studies. Core technical, ethical, and methodological issues have been addressed in recent years, but the important issue of participant dropout has received surprisingly little attention. Specifically, web-based psychology studies often involve undergraduates completing lengthy and time-consuming batteries of online personality questionnaires, but no known published studies to date have closely examined the natural course of participant dropout during attempted completion of these studies. The present investigation examined participant dropout among 1,963 undergraduates completing one of six web-based survey studies relatively representative of those conducted in university settings. Results indicated that 10% of participants could be expected to drop out of these studies nearly instantaneously, with an additional 2% dropping out per 100 survey items included in the study. For individual project investigators, these findings hold ramifications for study design considerations, such as conducting a priori power analyses. The present results also have broader ethical implications for understanding and improving voluntary participation in research involving human subjects. Nonetheless, the generalizability of these conclusions may be limited to studies involving similar design or survey content.     

Dropout policies and trends for students with and without disabilities

Students with and without disabilities are dropping out of school at an alarming rate. However, the precise extent of the problem remains elusive because individual schools, school districts, and state departments of education often use different definitional criteria and calculation methods. In addition, specific reasons why students drop out continues to be speculative and minimal research exists validating current dropout prevention programs for students with and without disabilities. This study examined methods secondary school principals used to calculate dropout rates, reasons they believed students dropped out of school, and what prevention programs were being used for students with and without disabilities. Results indicated that school districts used calculation methods that minimized dropout rates, students with and without disabilities dropped out for similar reasons, and few empirically validated prevention programs were being implemented. Implications for practice and directions for future research are discussed.     

Predictors of Dropout in Cognitive Processing Therapy for PTSD: An Examination of Trauma Narrative Content

Dropout rates in trauma-focused treatments for adult posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) are high. Most research has focused on demographic and pretreatment predictors of dropout, but findings have been inconsistent. We examined predictors of dropout in cognitive processing therapy (CPT) by coding the content of trauma narratives written in early sessions of CPT. Data are from a randomized controlled noninferiority trial of CPT and written exposure therapy (WET) in which CPT showed significantly higher dropout rates than WET (39.7% CPT vs. 6.4% WET). Participants were 51 adults with a primary diagnosis of PTSD who were receiving CPT and completed at least one of three narratives in the early sessions of CPT. Sixteen (31%) in this subsample were classified as dropouts and 35 as completers. An additional 9 participants dropped out but could not be included because they did not complete any narratives. Of the 11 participants who provided a reason for dropout, 82% reported that CPT was too distressing. The CHANGE coding system was used to code narratives for pathological trauma responses (cognitions, emotions, physiological responses) and maladaptive modes of processing (avoidance, ruminative processing, overgeneralization), each on a scale from 0 (absent) to 3 (high). Binary logistic regressions showed that, averaging across all available narratives, more negative emotions described during or around the time of the trauma predicted less dropout. More ruminative processing in the present time frame predicted lower rates of dropout, whereas more overgeneralized beliefs predicted higher rates. In the first impact statement alone, more negative emotions in the present time frame predicted lower dropout rates, but when emotional reactions had a physiological impact, dropout was higher. These findings suggest clinicians might attend to clients’ written trauma narratives in CPT in order to identify indicators of dropout risk and to help increase engagement.     

Postcriterion overlearning reduces the effectiveness of the method of adjusted learning

One goal of the method of adjusted learning (“dropout procedure”) is to equate the strength of different Items for subsequent retention. Some studies have yielded results in accord with this goal while others have not, with no known reason for the discrepancy. We manipulated the number of postcriterion overlearning trials and found that the adjusted learning procedure was effective in equating items for subsequent retention when learning terminated after one correct response per item but ineffective when postcriterion overlearning trials occurred. This finding is especially important for those versions of the adjusted learning procedure, such as the frequently utilized variant developed by Battig (1965), that incorporate overlearning of the to-be-equated items.     

The Advantages of Predictive Interval Forecasts for Non‐Expert Users and the Impact of Visualizations

Three experiments demonstrated advantages over conventional deterministic forecasts for participants making temperature estimates and precautionary decisions with predictive interval weather forecasts showing the upper and lower boundaries within which the observed value is expected with a specified probability. Participants using predictive intervals were better able to identify unreliable forecasts, expected a narrower range of outcomes, and were more decisive than were participants using deterministic forecasts. Predictive interval format was also manipulated to determine whether adding visualizations enhanced understanding. Some participants using visualizations misinterpreted predictive intervals as expressions of diurnal fluctuations (deterministic forecasts). Almost no misinterpretations occurred when the predictive interval was expressed in text alone. Moreover, no advantages were found for visualizations over text‐only formats, demonstrating that visualizations, especially those investigated in these studies, may not be suitable for expressing this concept. Thus, predictive intervals are both understandable and advantageous to non‐expert decision makers, as long as they are carefully expressed. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Need satisfaction,work–school interference and school dropout: An application of self-determination theory

Background. In many parts of the world, it is common for secondary school students to be involved in part-time employment. Research shows that working can have a negative impact on school engagement. However, the majority of studies have focused on the amount of time that students spend working rather than on the quality of work experience and its influence on school engagement. Aims. This study explored the relation of part-time work and school experiences to dropout intentions among secondary school and junior college students. The study was conceptualized from a self-determination theory perspective (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Sample. Participants were 3,248 students from rural and suburban schools in the greater region of Montreal, Canada. Method. Questionnaires were used to assess the number of hours worked, the extent to which work interfered with or facilitated school functioning, autonomy, competence, and relatedness experienced in the work and school domains. School performance and school dropout intentions were also assessed. Results. A curvilinear relation between work hours and dropout intentions was found, reflecting that part-time work began to be associated with higher dropout intentions only when students worked more than 7 hr per week. Analyses also showed that work–school interference was related to dropout intentions, and that this variable served to mediate the relation of employer autonomy support to dropout intentions. Conclusions. These results suggest that both the quantity and the quality of students’ part-time work experiences need to be considered when examining the relation of work to school engagement.     

Factors That Predict Premature Termination Among Mexican-American Children in Outpatient Psychotherapy

The role of demographic variables, acculturation, and therapy attitudes and expectations in predicting treatment dropout for Mexican-American families who presented for mental health treatment for a young child at a community mental health center was examined. Univariate analyses indicated that less educated parents who felt that they should be able to overcome their child's mental health problems on their own, and who felt that emotional and behavioral problems should be handled by increasing discipline were more likely to terminate prematurely. In addition, parents who perceived more barriers to treatment and expected their child to recover quickly were more likely to drop out of treatment after attending just one session. Measures of household income, acculturation, therapist–client ethnic match, perceptions of stigma, and expectations of therapist directiveness were not related to treatment dropout. When multivariate analyses were examined, parental education, perceived barriers to treatment, and belief in increased discipline remained significant predictors of treatment dropout, and client–therapist ethnic match became a significant predictor of dropout. Results are discussed in terms of implications for culturally-sensitive interventions.     

The Nature,Timing, and Symptom Trajectories of Dropout From Transdiagnostic and Single-Diagnosis Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Anxiety Disorders

Dropout from psychotherapy is common and can have negative effects for patients, providers, and researchers. A better understanding of when and why patients stop treatment early, as well as actionable factors contributing to dropout, has the potential to prevent it. Here, we examined dropout from a large randomized controlled trial of transdiagnostic versus single-diagnosis cognitive-behavioral treatment (CBT) for patients with anxiety disorders (n = 179; Barlow et al., 2017). We aimed to characterize the timing of and reasons for dropout and test whether participants who dropped out had different symptom trajectories than those who completed treatment. Results indicated that overall, the greatest risk of dropout was prior to the first treatment session. In single-diagnosis CBT, dropout risk was particularly elevated before the first session and after other early sessions, whereas in transdiagnostic CBT, dropout risk was low and stable before and during treatment. Participants most often dropped out due to failure to comply with study procedures or dissatisfaction with or desiring alternative treatment. Results from multilevel models showed that trajectories of anxiety symptoms did not significantly differ between dropouts and completers. These findings suggest that there may be specific time windows for targeted and timely interventions to prevent dropout from CBT.     

Differences in intelligence between nondelinquent and dropout delinquent adolescents

This study examined differences in intelligence between dropout delinquent adolescents and nondelinquent adolescents in Israel. It was part of research aimed at using psychological tests to characterize dropout delinquents. The participants, 215 adolescents at a psychoeducational center, were divided into three groups and were tested using the WISC-R: dropout delinquent adolescents living in residential institutions, dropout delinquent adolescents living at home, and nondelinquent adolescents living at home and enrolled in the formal education system. Results showed significant differences among the three groups in Verbal IQ, Performance IQ, Total IQ, and the Freedom from Distractibility factor, and pointed out the relative weakness of the dropout delinquent groups.     

Academic response rate as a function of teacher- and self-imposed contingencies

The purpose of this study was to assess the effects of the contingency manager (teacher or pupil) on a pupil's academic response rate. The results of two such experiments disclosed that higher academic rates occurred when the pupil arranged the contingency requirements than when the teacher specified them. A third study manipulated only reinforcement magnitude to ascertain whether amount of reinforcement had interacted with pupil-specified contingencies to produce the increase in academic response rate. The latter findings revealed that the contingency manager, not reinforcement magnitude, accounted for this subject's gain in performance.     

Symptoms of emotional disorders and sociodemographic factors as moderators of dropout in psychological treatment: A meta-review

ObjectiveDropout from psychological treatment is an important problem that substantially limits treatment effectiveness. A better understanding of this phenomenon, could help to minimize it. Therefore, we performed a systematic review of meta-analyses (MA) on dropout from psychological treatments to (1) determine the estimated overall dropout rate (DR) and (2) to examine potential predictors of dropout, including clinical symptoms (anxiety and depression) and sociodemographic factors.MethodA literature search of the PubMed PsycINFO, Embase, Scopus and Google Scholar databases was conducted. We identified 196 MAs on dropout from psychological treatment carried out primarily in adult patients or mixed samples (adults and children) between 1990 and 2022. Of these, 12 met all inclusion criteria. Two forest plots were created to visualize the DR and the relationship between DR and the disorder.ResultsThe DR ranged from 15.9% to 46.8% and was significantly moderated by symptoms of emotional disorders. The highest DR were observed in younger, unmarried patients, and those with lower educational and income levels.ConclusionsDR in patients undergoing psychological treatment is highly heterogeneous, but higher in individuals presenting symptoms of anxiety and/or depression, especially the latter. Given that high DR undermine the effectiveness of psychological interventions, it is clear that greater efforts are needed to reduce dropout, particularly among individuals with symptoms of emotional disorders.     

Verbal asymmetries and levels of processing in an interactive dual-task paradigm

This study examined how the dual-task laterality paradigm produces patterns of cerebral asymmetry different from those obtained in studies of comparable single-laterality tasks. We systematically examined at what level of processing a concurrent verbal memory-load influences accuracy of recognition of laterally presented nouns relative to that in a control condition. Four groups of 20 subjects each were tested in an interactive dual-task paradigm requiring them to compare lateralized nouns directly with one of three nouns concurrently held in memory prior to accuracy of recognition. The groups differed according to the types of comparisons being made: physical identity, phonetic orthographic similarity, phonetic similarity using non-orthographic words, and category membership. Subjects in each group carried out three tasks. They were required to determine if a specified match had occurred between a memory-load word and the lateralized word, identify the lateralized word, and report the memory-load words. Another 20 subjects were assigned to a control laterality condition in which no concurrent memory-load was used. Control subjects were required to respond to a laterally presented word by pressing a reaction-time key to indicate recognition of the word and then to report the word. No significant visual-field differences occurred in accuracy of recognition for either the control or matching-task groups. However, reaction-time latencies and errors increased as a function of the level of processing. The accuracy of recognition did not support the predictions of Kinsbourne's attentional model but the reaction times provided some support for the concept of selective left-hemisphere interference proposed by Hellige. A limited-capacity approach was suggested as a possible alternative explanation of laterality effects.     

A systematic review and meta-analysis of dropout rates from dialectical behaviour therapy in randomized controlled trials

ABSTRACT

Dropout is an important factor that may compromise the validity of findings from randomized controlled trials (RCTs) of dialectical behaviour therapy (DBT). We conducted a targeted meta-analytic review of dropout from RCTs of DBT, with the aims of (1) calculating average rates of dropout from DBT; (2) investigating factors that moderate dropout; (3) examining whether dropout rates from DBT differ to control interventions; (4) synthesising reasons for dropout. Forty RCTs of DBT met full inclusion criteria. The weighted mean dropout rate was 28.0% (95% CI = 23.6, 32.9). Dropout rates were not related to target disorder, dropout definition, delivery format, therapist experience, and therapist adherence. Unexpectedly, dropout rates were significantly higher in trials that offered telephone coaching and utilized a therapist consultation team. DBT dropout rates did not significantly differ to dropout rates from control interventions. Few trials reported reasons for dropout, and there was little consistency in the reported reasons. Findings suggest that over one in four patients drop out from DBT in RCTs. This review highlights the urgency for future trials to explicitly report detail pertaining to patient dropout, as this may assist in the development of strategies designed to prevent future dropouts in RCTs of DBT.