Maternal Distress and Parenting in the Context of Cumulative Disadvantage

To read this article's abstract in both Spanish and Mandarin Chinese, please visit the article's full‐text page on Wiley InterScience ( http://interscience.wiley.com/journal/famp ). This article presents an emergent conceptual model of the features and links between cumulative disadvantage, maternal distress, and parenting practices in low‐income families in which parental incarceration has occurred. The model emerged from the integration of extant conceptual and empirical research with grounded theory analysis of longitudinal ethnographic data from Welfare, Children, and Families: A Three‐City Study. Fourteen exemplar family cases were used in the analysis. Results indicated that mothers in these families experienced life in the context of cumulative disadvantage, reporting a cascade of difficulties characterized by neighborhood worries, provider concerns, bureaucratic difficulties, violent intimate relationships, and the inability to meet children's needs. Mothers, however, also had an intense desire to protect their children, and to make up for past mistakes. Although, in response to high levels of maternal distress and disadvantage, most mothers exhibited harsh discipline of their children, some mothers transformed their distress by advocating for their children under difficult circumstances. Women's use of harsh discipline and advocacy was not necessarily an “either/or” phenomenon as half of the mothers included in our analysis exhibited both harsh discipline and care/advocacy behaviors. Maternal distress characterized by substance use, while connected to harsh disciplinary behavior, did not preclude mothers engaging in positive parenting behaviors.     

Reciprocal Relations between the Trajectories of Mothers’ Harsh Discipline,Responsiveness and Aggression in Early Childhood

Theoretical advances in the study of the development of aggressive behaviors indicate that parenting behaviors and child aggression mutually influence one another. This study contributes to the body of empirical research in this area by examining the development of child aggression, maternal responsiveness, and maternal harsh discipline, using 5-year longitudinal data from a nationally representative sample of Turkish children (n = 1009; 469 girls and 582 boys). Results indicated that: (i) maternal responsiveness and harsh discipline at age 3 were associated with the subsequent linear trajectory of aggression; (ii) reciprocally, aggressive behaviors at age 3 were associated with the subsequent linear trajectories of these two types of parenting behaviors; (iii) deviations from the linear trajectories of the child and mother behaviors tended to be short lived; and, (iv) the deviations of child behaviors from the linear trajectories were associated with the subsequent changes in mother behaviors after age 5. These findings are discussed in the cultural context of this study.     

The Impact of Children's Language Ability on Parent Cognitions and Harsh Discipline Practices

This study examined associations between children's language ability and maternal cognitions about the intentionality and aversiveness of child behaviour, and mothers' reported harsh discipline responses to child misbehaviour. We tested associations with each type of cognition separately as well as in a single model to explore their unique associations. Participants included 69 mothers and their 18‐ to 37‐month‐old children. Mothers completed the Parenting Scale and were asked to rate the aversiveness and intentionality cognitions in response to eight common toddler problem behaviours. The Preschool Language Scale was administered to the children by an objective evaluator. A path analysis demonstrated that children's language ability was associated with maternal intentionality cognitions about their children's behaviour, which, in turn, was associated with mothers' harsh discipline. These findings highlight the importance of examining developmental markers of harsh parenting. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Inconsistent Discipline as a Mediator Between Maternal Distress and Aggression in Boys

The current study examines inconsistent discipline as a mediator in the association between maternal distress and child aggression and attention problems. Participants were 215 boys, ranging in age from 9 to 12 years, and their mothers. Mothers provided self-report data on socioeconomic status (SES), parenting stress, maternal distress (depression and anxiety/somatization), and use of parenting practices. They also rated their sons' levels of aggression and attention problems. Of five parenting practices measured, inconsistent discipline was most clearly related to the maternal and child variables of interest. Regression analyses indicated that inconsistent discipline partially mediated the relation between maternal distress and child aggression, when controlling for SES and stress, whereas the mediating role of inconsistent discipline in the association between maternal distress and attention problems was not supported. The different pattern for attention problems, which also includes nondisruptive behaviors, suggests that this mediation may be specific to certain types of child behavior. Given that aggressive behaviors in childhood often lead to more serious delinquency in adolescence, these findings are important for informing prevention and intervention efforts. The need for future research to examine other mediators also is discussed.     

Development of Externalizing Behaviors in the Context of Family and non-Family Relationships

A longitudinal model was presented, that included reciprocal associations between physically harsh parenting by the mother, child externalizing problems, and support from the father, the extended family, and the neighbors. This transactional process was estimated for the years preceding school entry. The data were from a 4-years longitudinal and nationally representative study of 1009 children and their mothers in Turkey. The results indicated that concurrently, physically harsh parenting and child externalizing problems were strongly associated. Controlling for their within domain stability and cross-domain concurrent correlation, changes in harsh parenting and changes in child externalizing behaviors had significant reciprocal effects in early childhood, although these effects were small. These reciprocal effects were smaller for observer reported harsh parenting than maternal reports. There was a role of the mesosystem in this developmental process. Increases in the support from the father, and the extended family and the neighbors predicted declines in the child externalizing behaviors subsequently. Reciprocally, high child externalizing and maternal physically harsh parenting predicted subsequent declines in the support from these sources. These results were consistent with the hypotheses that negative mother–child relationships could spill over to the other relationships of the mothers, and that positive and supportive relationships of the mother could constitute positive role models for the child.     

Interaction between maternal and paternal parenting styles with infant temperament in emerging behavior problems

This study examined the interaction effects of infant temperament (negative affect, orienting/regulatory capacity, surgency) on the relationship between maternal and paternal parenting styles (authoritative, authoritarian, permissive) and externalizing and internalizing behaviors simultaneously. A diverse sample of mothers (N = 186) and fathers (N = 142) reported on infant temperament of their 6-month-olds and their children’s internalizing and externalizing behaviors one year later. Significant interactions revealed: (a) surgency moderated maternal authoritative and paternal permissive parenting style and externalizing behaviors; and (b) surgency moderated maternal authoritarian and paternal authoritative parenting style and internalizing behaviors. No significant interactions were found between maternal and paternal parenting styles and their report of their infants’ orienting/regulatory capacity and negative affect. Findings suggest interaction effects may appear beginning in infancy.     

Contextual amplification of pubertal transition effects on deviant peer affiliation and externalizing behavior among African American children.

The effects of the pubertal transition on behavior problems and its interaction with family and neighborhood circumstances were examined with a sample of 867 African American children 10-12 years of age. Pubertal development status, pubertal timing, and primary caregivers' parenting behaviors were significantly related to affiliation with deviant peers and externalizing behaviors. Externalizing behavior among early-maturing children was associated positively with primary caregivers' use of harsh-inconsistent discipline and negatively with nurturant-involved parenting practices. Disadvantaged neighborhood conditions were significantly associated with deviant peer affiliation. The effect of pubertal transition varied according to family and neighborhood conditions: Early-maturing children living in disadvantaged neighborhoods were significantly more likely to affiliate with deviant peers. Early-maturing children with harsh and inconsistent parents were significantly more likely to have externalizing problems.     

Vocabularies

Negative emotionality is considered to be the core of the difficult temperament concept (J. E. Bates, 1989; R. L. Shiner, 1998). In this correlational study, the authors examined whether the relations between children's negative emotionality and problematic behavior (internalizing and externalizing) were partially mediated by parenting style (authoritative and authoritarian) in a community sample of 196 3-year-old children and their mothers. The authors assessed maternal perception of child negative emotionality using the Children's Behavior Questionnaire (M. K. Rothbart, S. A. Ahadi, K. L. Hershey, &; P. Fisher, 2001) and assessed problematic child behavior by means of maternal report using the Child Behavior Checklist (T. M. Achenbach, 1992). The results showed that the relations between child negative emotionality and internalizing and externalizing behaviors were partially mediated by mothers' authoritative parenting style. Moreover, when the authors used confirmatory factor analysis to decontaminate possible overlap in item content between measures assessing temperament and problematic behavior, the association between negative emotionality and internalizing behavior was fully mediated by authoritative parenting.     

Parenting practices and their relevance to child behaviors in Canada and China

Liu, M. & Guo, F. (2010). Parenting practices and their relevance to child behaviors in Canada and China. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 51, 109–114. Recent studies have revealed that parents in different cultures endorse different child‐rearing practices. Studies in the West suggest that there is a cluster of behavioral characteristics in children that are linked with each type of parenting styles. Mixed results, however, were found in non‐Western countries. This study examined (1) parenting practices in Canadian and Chinese mothers, and (2) the relevance between parenting practices and child behaviors in Canada and China. Forty Canadian children (average age = 5.40) and 39 Chinese children (average age = 4.84) and their mothers participated in the study. Information on maternal authoritative and authoritarian behaviors and children’s behaviors, including coercive request, polite request, and assertiveness, was obtained from observations of mother‐child interactions in a laboratory situation. The results indicated that Chinese mothers were less authoritative and more authoritarian than Canadian mothers. Both cross‐cultural differences and similarities were found on the associations between maternal parenting practices and child behaviors.     

The Influence of Maternal Child-Rearing Attitudes and Teaching Behaviors on Preschoolers' Delay of Gratification

This study was an exploratory examination of the influence of mothers' teaching behaviors, strategies, and child-rearing attitudes on their children's ability to delay gratification. In an externally imposed delay of gratification situation, 30 mothers from a rural university community taught their children strategies that could help them refrain from touching a brightly wrapped present when the mothers left the room. Results showed that mothers of children who did not delay gratification exhibited teaching behaviors and child-rearing attitudes consistent with a permissive parenting style, whereas mothers of children who did delay gratification exhibited teaching behaviors and child-rearing attitudes consistent with an authoritative parenting style. The results of this study are discussed with respect to the development of children's self-control and self-regulatory abilities.     

Parenting and child behaviour problems: a longitudinal analysis of non‐shared environment

This study examined potential non‐shared environmental processes in middle childhood by estimating statistical associations between monozygotic (MZ) twin differences in externalizing and internalizing problems and positive social engagement, and differential maternal positivity and negativity, over 1 year. Seventy‐seven pairs of identical twins participated (M=6.08‐years old, 65% male) in two annual home visits. Observers' ratings and maternal reports were gathered. At both assessments, the twin who showed more conduct problems (maternal report and observers' ratings) and less positive social engagement (positive affect, responsiveness) received more maternal negativity and less maternal warmth (self‐reports and observers' ratings), relative to his or her genetically identical co‐twin. The same patterns held over time, for the associations between change in differential MZ twin conduct problems and social engagement and change in differential maternal behaviour. Effects for child internalizing problems were not consistent within or across raters. Overall, these results indicated that differential maternal warmth and negativity—self‐perceived and observed by others—are important aspects of sibling differentiation for both problematic and adaptive behaviours during middle childhood. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Parenting and Adolescent Grandiose Narcissism: Mediation through Independent Self-Construal and Need for Positive Approval

While particular parenting styles and parenting qualities have been linked to adolescent narcissistic tendencies, their association is likely indirect. Parents aim to indoctrinate adolescents with dispositional tendencies, such as self-confidence independence and a focus on peer acceptance, which incidentally manifest in narcissism. The authors investigated whether mothers' and fathers' positive parenting and lax discipline were linked indirectly to adolescent grandiose narcissism through a need for positive approval and independent self-construal. Adolescents (n = 460; 58.5% girls; age range = 15–18 years) completed several measures online. Structural equation modeling revealed that maternal positive parenting and discipline were indirectly linked to grandiose narcissism through adolescents' need for positive approval. Fathers' positive parenting was linked directly and partially through independent self-construal to grandiose narcissism. Fathers' discipline remained directly associated with adolescent grandiose narcissism. Discussion focuses on the nuanced association between parenting and grandiose narcissism in adolescents and the implications for upholding behavioral standards.     

Associations between Maternal Physical Discipline and Peer Victimization among Hong Kong Chinese Children: The Moderating Role of Child Aggression

This study examines the relation between maternal physical discipline and victimization by peers, as moderated by child aggression. The sample consisted of 211 Hong Kong Chinese children (98 boys, 113 girls; average age of 11.9). Physical discipline was assessed with a questionnaire completed by mothers, and victimization by peers and aggression were measured using a peer nomination inventory. Latent variable models revealed a moderately strong link between children’s experiences with maternal physical discipline and peer victimization, but this effect held only for children who were also high on aggression. These results highlight the interplay between harsh home environments and child aggression and their contributions to the child’s adjustment in the peer group.     

Reciprocal Relationships Between Parenting Behavior and Disruptive Psychopathology from Childhood Through Adolescence

Theoretical models suggest that child behaviors influence parenting behaviors, and specifically that unpleasant child behaviors coerce parents to discontinue engaging in appropriate discipline. This study examined reciprocal relationships between parenting behaviors (supervision, communication, involvement, timid discipline and harsh punishment) and child disruptive disorder symptoms (ADHD, ODD and CD) in a clinic-referred sample of 177 boys. Annual measures, including structured clinical interviews, were obtained from the beginning of the study (when boys were between the ages of 7 to 12) to age 17. Specific reciprocal influence was observed; only timid discipline predicted worsening behavior, namely ODD symptoms, and ODD symptoms predicted increases in timid discipline. Greater influence from child behaviors to parenting practices was found: ODD also predicted poorer communication and decreased involvement, and CD predicted poorer supervision. ADHD was neither predictive of, nor predicted by, parenting behaviors. The results are specifically supportive of a coercive process between child behaviors and parenting behaviors, and generally suggestive of greater influence of child behaviors on parenting behaviors than of parenting behaviors on child behaviors.     

Does why we reminisce reflect how you behave? Linking maternal reminiscing goals to child behavioural and emotional problems

Recent theoretical and empirical work suggests that joint mother–child reminiscence may reflect both explicit and implicit socialization goals. The present study investigates mothers' explicit socialization goals that may be enacted during joint reminiscence in relation to children's behavioural and emotional problems. Two hundred and sixty‐five mothers of 3‐ to 8‐year‐old children completed an online survey that included a measure of seven reminiscing goals (emotional understanding, behaviour control, bonding, interdependence, entertainment, memory skill development, and maintaining peer relationships). In addition, mothers completed measures of children's emotion problems, conduct problems, hyperactivity, and peer problems as well as supportive parenting and maternal attachment. Findings indicated that controlling for supportive parenting and maternal attachment, emotional understanding was a unique predictor of children's emotion problems, directing behaviour was a unique predictor of conduct problems, and bonding was a unique predictor of hyperactivity. These findings provide support for the functional nature of joint reminiscence. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Relations between maternal power-assertive parenting and adjustment in Chinese children: A longitudinal study

This 1-year longitudinal study examined relations between maternal power-assertive parenting and children's social, academic and psychological adjustment in China. Participants were 316 elementary school children (mean age = 11 years, 153 boys). Maternal power-assertive parenting was assessed using children's self-reports. Data on children's social and school adjustment were obtained from peer evaluations and teacher ratings. In addition, children completed measures of loneliness and depression. Cross-lagged analyses indicated that whereas maternal power-assertive parenting was only related to later academic adjustment, children's adjustment in socioemotional and academic domains contributed to the prediction of later maternal power-assertive parenting. The results were discussed in the Chinese context.     

Inhibitory Control and Harsh Discipline as Predictors of Externalizing Problems in Young Children: A Comparative Study of U.S., Chinese,and Japanese Preschoolers

We examined associations between child inhibitory control, harsh parental discipline and externalizing problems in 120 4 year-old boys and girls in the US, China, and Japan. Individual differences in children’s inhibitory control abilities, assessed using behavioral tasks and maternal ratings, were related to child externalizing problems reported by mothers. As predicted, both child inhibitory control and maternal harsh discipline made significant contributions to child externalizing problems in all three countries. Across countries, child inhibitory control and maternal harsh discipline made significant independent contributions to early externalizing problems, suggesting an additive model of association. Our findings supported the cross-cultural generalizability of child inhibitory control and parental harsh punishment as key contributors to disruptive behavior in young children.     

Economic Stress in Fragile Families: Pathways to Parent and Child Maladjustment

This study investigates mechanisms through which socioeconomic disadvantage impacts family and child functioning using data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (FFCWS), which includes 4,898 families followed from a child’s birth through age 9 (47.6% female). Analyses explored associations between economic stress at birth and age 1 and child conduct problems at age 9 and whether associations were sequentially mediated through age 3 maternal depression and age 5 observed harsh and positive parenting. Results revealed several significant direct associations. Lower mean income at birth and age 1 was associated with higher material hardship at age 1. Hardship was associated with increased risk of maternal depression at age 3. Maternal depression was associated with higher harsh/lower positive parenting at age 5. Higher harsh/lower positive parenting were associated with higher conduct problems at age 9. While indirect effects for the full series of pathways from income to conduct problems through three sequential meditators (hardship, maternal depression, harsh/positive parenting) were not significant, several specific indirect effects were significant. The effect from income to positive parenting through hardship and depression was significant. The effects of income on conduct problems through harsh and positive parenting were significant. The effect of income on depression through hardship was significant. Results suggest that effects of socioeconomic disadvantage on conduct problems are partially mediated by compromised parenting. Further, material hardship partially explained how lower income was associated with maternal depression and less optimal parenting. Implications for future studies investigating material hardship and impacts of disadvantage are discussed.     

Seesaw Discipline: The Interactive Effect of Harsh and Lax Discipline on Youth Psychological Adjustment

Although extant research documents the negative consequences of harsh and lax discipline for youth, little empirical attention has been devoted to understanding the impact when parents utilize both strategies. As such, the current study was designed to explore the interaction of harsh and lax discipline on youth internalizing and externalizing symptoms in three developmental periods (early childhood, middle childhood, and adolescence). Participants were 615 parents (55 % female) and one of their 3–17 year old children (45 % female). Parents provided reports of their harsh and lax parenting tactics as well as offspring internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Multiple linear regression analyses were utilized to examine the relations between the interaction of harsh and lax parenting on youth symptoms. The interaction between harsh and lax discipline was significantly related to youth internalizing, but not externalizing, problems in the both the young and middle childhood samples and marginally significant in the adolescence sample: seesaw discipline—a novel construct indicative of high levels of both harsh and lax discipline—was associated with the highest levels of youth internalizing problems. Parents who engage in seesaw parenting have children and adolescents who are more likely to evidence internalizing symptoms. Such findings may inform prevention and intervention efforts that target dysfunctional discipline.     

The Role of Peers in the Linkages Between Harsh Parenting and Mental Health Outcomes Among Adolescents from Families At-Risk

Harsh parenting is associated with adolescent mental health concerns. Peer relationships also importantly influence adolescent mental health outcomes. Although the direct associations between harsh parenting, peer relationships, and adolescent outcomes have been empirically established, less is known about the extent to which peer relationships mediate the associations between harsh parenting and adolescent outcomes. This study tested the links between harsh parenting, peer relationships, and adolescent outcomes among families at-risk for child maltreatment. With a sample of caregivers and adolescents (n = 218), the results of mediation analyses indicated that peer aggression partially mediated the pathway between harsh parenting and externalizing symptoms of both females and males. Additionally, peer rejection partially mediated the links between harsh parenting and internalizing symptoms of both females and males and peer rejection also was a partial mediator of male externalizing symptoms.