熟悉性和兼容性对复合社会范畴刻板印象表征的影响

通过对启动任务范式的改进,运用3个实验全面考察了复合社会范畴本身的熟悉性和兼容性对复合社会范畴刻板印象中抽象表征和样例表征策略运用的影响。实验1分别以熟悉的、不熟悉且在刻板印象上不兼容的复合范畴为研究对象,研究发现对熟悉的复合范畴采用抽象表征,而对不熟悉且在刻板印象上不兼容的复合范畴的表征采用样例表征;实验2以熟悉且在刻板印象上不兼容的复合范畴为研究对象,研究发现对于熟悉但构成范畴不兼容的复合范畴的表征也采用样例表征;实验3采用相同的实验范式,在描述和定义两种启动任务中设置子范畴间兼容的刻板特质词和不兼容的刻板特质词,选择与实验2相同的复合范畴"男中学教师"为目标群体,更加严密地证实和整合了实验1与实验2的研究结论。3个实验的结果说明复合范畴刻板印象的表征关键取决于兼容性,一旦复合社会范畴的构成范畴在刻板印象上不兼容,那么对于这一复合社会范畴刻板印象的表征采用样例表征。当构成复合范畴的两个子范畴之间兼容时,熟悉性成为刻板印象运用抽象表征还是样例表征的影响因素,无论是对内群体的刻板印象还是外群体的刻板印象,对熟悉的刻板特质词的表征运用抽象表征。     

范畴变量对虚假记忆的影响

以中文词为材料,考察范畴样例重复,样例熟悉性、典型性和范畴大小对虚假再认的影响。实验1表明,随着范畴样例增加,虚假再认也增加。实验2表明,对高熟悉的样例虚假再认多。实验3表明,对高典型样例更易虚假再认。实验4表明,和大范畴样例比,对小范畴样例有更多的虚假再认。整个结果可以用激活扩散理论统一地加以解释     

基于原型特征因果关系的归纳推理研究

两个实验探讨新特征与类别原型特征之间存在因果关系时,因果关系对归纳推理的影响.实验1探讨不同典型性条件下,新特征与原型特征间的因果关系对归纳推理的影响.实验2探讨不同多样性条件下,新特征与原型特征间的因果关系对归纳推理的影响.研究结果表明,当新特征与原型特征之间存在因果关系时,因果关系会影响归纳推理的力度,但样例典型性和多样性仍是影响人们归纳推理的重要因素.     

决策过程中的记忆可提取性效用

记忆的可提取性效用是人们在评估过往事件时所感受到的愉悦或满意程度, 这种评估建立在人们从记忆中提取出的信息基础上。研究发现, 人们对过往事件进行评估时会出现违反效用最大化原则的决策, 主要表现在三个实验现象上：峰终律、时长忽视和违背单调叠加性。研究者多从原型判断的角度去理解这些现象, 但可提取性效用是否还有其他内在机制仍然有待进一步研究。     

时间顺序关系对语言理解的影响

通过2个实验探讨在语言理解中时间顺序相关性(顺时序、反时序、不相关)和时间间隔(200ms、500ms、1000ms)在日常事件认识中的作用。实验采用关系——认知范式(relarion-recognition paradigm)。结果表明：被试在有明显时间信息影响下,优先对将来取向(顺时序)的事件进行加工处理。对时间上不相关的事件比对顺时序和反时序的事件加工得快而准。但在无明显时间信息影响时,首先受到本身词义的影响,继而受到隐含的时间信息的影响。     

面孔部件相似性判断研究

用Morph变形方法构建家族相似性面孔部件样例,采用多级估量法探讨分类活动中面孔部件相似性判断问题。结果发现,部件样例对部件原型的隶属度及部件样例对整体原型中对应部件的隶属度与部件样例变形百分比间是3次函数关系;耳朵、脸型、眼睛等部件样例对整体原型中对应部件的隶属度小于其对部件原型的隶属度,嘴巴样例对整体原型中嘴巴部件的隶属度高于其对部件原型的隶属度。表明面孔部件物理相似性与心理相似性间是3次函数关系;整体原型中其他部件降低了耳朵、脸型、眼睛等部件样例对整体原型中对应部件的隶属度,而提高了嘴巴样例对整体原     

不同文章难度条件下文化特征类型熟悉度对阅读理解的影响

该研究考察了非英语专业具有不同英语语言水平学习者在不同难度条件下两种文化特征熟悉度对阅读理解的影响。研究发现：（1）语言水平高,或对材料背景熟悉的学习者可通过调用熟悉的文化背景知识帮助阅读理解,其得分均高于低水平,或对材料不熟悉的学习者;（2）在熟悉的文化背景条件下,当材料难度与学习者语言水平基本一致时,语言水平低的学习者也可较好地运用熟悉的文化背景知识帮助阅读理解。实验结果表明：文化特征的内容熟悉度和英语语言水平（或文章难度）对阅读理解起着重要作用,语言水平越高,作用越大。     

熟悉人嗓声识别的事件相关电位

本实验研究了8名被试在识别熟悉人嗓声和辨别陌生人嗓声过程中的事件相关电位,熟悉人和陌生人的发音方式有两种:Pa 和Ba,并且以三种不同的概率呈现:1:2、1:1和2:1。结果发现,熟悉嗓声诱发的N100和P200波的潜伏期较长,波幅较小,发音Ba 比Pa 能更有效地诱发事件相关电位,而且事件相关电位对熟悉人嗓声的反应更灵敏.     

样例的编码方式对问题解决迁移的影响及心理机制

以概率原理为材料,通过两个实验考察了样例的编码方式对问题解决迁移的影响及其心理机制。实验1探讨了样例的变异性与不同的自我解释模式结合对被试解决不同程度迁移问题的影响;实验2运用大声思维技术,进一步探讨不同样例的变异性和不同自我解释模式编码样例的条件下学习者的学习活动和问题解决的特点。结果表明:样例的变异性和诱发自我解释模式结合能有效地促进原理图式的获得和迁移;自我解释对理解原理和获得原理的概化图式有着重要作用。不同的学习者自我解释的特征并不一致,存在着个体差异。     

规则样例学习的实验研究和理论探索

首先阐释了规则与规律的关系以及规则学习的主要途径和教学方法。然后介绍了自己与团队成员所做的规则样例学习的实验研究。实验研究的结果表明,只要采用和开发有效的样例设计方法设计样例,学生可以经过样例学习,利用已知的规则领悟新规则和新规则的运用,而且这种学习具有普适性。最后,作者论述了规则样例学习的实质、功能、条件和今后重点研究的问题。     

When Illnesses or Accidents Befall Others: The Role of Gender in Defensive Distancing

Two experiments were designed to investigate the proposition that men engage in greater defensive distancing than do women. In Experiment 1, we tested this hypothesis by having male and female participants (predominantly White, from working class backgrounds) distance themselves from a person with an illness or medical condition. In Experiment 2, we tested this hypothesis by having male and female participants distance themselves from a person involved in a mild or severe accident. We also attempted to replicate the finding that people distance themselves more over time from a person with a serious illness. As predicted, men engaged in greater defensive distancing than did women. We did not find that participants distanced themselves more over time from a person with a serious illness. Implications of these findings are discussed.     

Category representation for classification and feature inference

This research's purpose was to contrast the representations resulting from learning of the same categories by either classifying instances or inferring instance features. Prior inference learning research, particularly T. Yamauchi and A. B. Markman (1998), has suggested that feature inference learning fosters prototype representation, whereas classification learning encourages exemplar representation. Experiment 1 supported this hypothesis. Averaged and individual participant data from transfer after inference training were better fit by a prototype than by an exemplar model. However, Experiment 2, with contrasting inference learning conditions, indicated that the prototype model was mimicking a set of label-based bidirectional rules, as determined by the inference learning task demands in Experiment 1. Only the set of rules model accounted for all the inference learning conditions in these experiments.     

Completely ruled out? Using response time data to investigate biconditional artificial grammar learning

Two experiments are reported on incidental learning using a biconditional artificial grammar (based on Johnstone & Shanks, 2001). Phonological repetition of rule-related letters was encouraged by requiring participants to write down and rehearse each training exemplar aloud for several seconds (Experiment 1). A cover story was introduced emphasising the relatedness of the two halves of each exemplar but without mentioning the rules (Experiment 2). Participants had no explicit knowledge of the rules and grammaticality classification was mostly at chance. Confidence judgements (Experiment 2) did not distinguish between numbers of correct and incorrect responses. The important finding was that response times were faster for grammatical than ungrammatical test exemplars. Results are discussed with reference to phonological phrasing, fluency, and competition between controlled and automatic processes.     

Prototypes and particulars: geometric and experience-dependent spatial categories

People use geometric cues to form spatial categories. This study investigated whether people also use the spatial distribution of exemplars. Adults pointed to remembered locations on a tabletop. In Experiment 1, a target was placed in each geometric category, and the location of targets was varied. Adults' responses were biased away from a midline category boundary toward geometric prototypes located at the centers of left and right categories. Experiment 2 showed that prototype effects were not influenced by cross-category interactions. In Experiment 3, subsets of targets were positioned at different locations within each category. When prototype effects were removed, there was a bias toward the center of the exemplar distribution, suggesting that common categorization processes operate across spatial and object domains.     

Recognition vs. classification of ill-defined category exemplars

In Experiment 1, subjects were trained on three ill-defined categories represented by 4, 8, and 12 exemplars. Learning was followed by either a classification test on old, new, and random exemplars or a recognition test in which each learning exemplar was presented with two foils, both equidistant to the learning exemplar, but one more similar to the category prototype than the other. In Experiment 2, category size was manipulated between subjects, followed by the recognition test. Recognition data indicated that increasing the number of learning exemplars did not increase the total amount of exemplar information retained for each category. In addition, the more prototypical foil was incorrectly recognized more often than the less prototypical foil. Classification data replicated previous findings that increasing category size in learning enhances classification of new exemplars. The results were interpreted in terms of the relative amounts of categorical and idiosyncratic information that were retained from the original learning stimuli. It was proposed that categorical information can become a more dominant determinant of performance as category size increases.     

6岁儿童的类别学习能力:类别表征、注意和分类策略

探讨了6岁儿童的类别学习能力、类别表征和分类策略。62名儿童参加了实验,实验1采用了"5/4模型"类别结构,实验2采用了"3/3类别结构"。结果发现:6岁儿童已经具备了一定的类别学习能力;相对于原型表征,6岁儿童更倾向于进行样例表征;6岁儿童在注意上具有定位在高典型性特征维度上的能力,但不具备定位在区分性特征维度上的能力;在类别学习策略上主要采用单维度分类策略和规则加例外的分类策略。     

Go with the flow: How to master a nonlinear multiple-cue judgment task

The authors examined the cognitive processes that participants use in linear and nonlinear multiple-cue judgment tasks, hypothesizing that people are unable to use explicit cue abstraction in a nonlinear task, instead turning to exemplar memory. Experiment 1 confirmed that people are unable to use cue abstraction in nonlinear tasks but failed to confirm the hypothesized, spontaneous shift to exemplar memory. Instead, the participants appeared to be trapped in persistent and futile attempts to abstract the cue-criterion relations. Only after being instructed to rely on exemplar memory in Experiment 2 did they master the nonlinear task. The results suggest that adaptive shifts of representation need not occur spontaneously and that analytical thought may sometimes harm performance in nonlinear tasks.     

Differential forgetting of prototypes and old instances: Simulation by an exemplar-based classification model

A common finding in studies of classification learning is that ability to classify the prototype of a category declines much less over a retention interval than does the ability to classify the previously seen exemplars themselves. We demonstrate here that this finding does not necessarily indicate the existence, in memory, of a representation of the prototype. MINERVA, a computer-simulation model that encodes memory traces only of presented exemplars, was tested on an appropriate task. Differential forgetting of prototypes and old instances was shown by a version of the model that assumed that (1) classification is based on the exemplar trace most similar to the test stimulus and (2) individual properties are lost from the traces over time in an all-or-none fashion. It is suggested that, in general, the key to the prediction of differential forgetting may be the concomitance of forgetting and generalization.