沉没成本效应的产生根源与影响因素

沉没成本效应是指决策者的决策行为因受沉没成本影响而产生的一种非理性决策现象。针对这一决策偏差的产生根源,研究者从认知、动机和神经三个角度提出了解释。沉没成本效应的影响因素包括沉没成本特性、情境因素、个体差异和文化差异等。基于先前研究存在的问题和不足,沉没成本效应的未来研究应着眼于改进研究方法,探究产生根源,关注行为沉没成本和加强应用研究。     

Task practice differentially modulates task-switching performance across the adult lifespan

Cued-trials task-switching paradigms have been used extensively to examine ageing-related changes in cognitive control. Many studies report an increase in mixing cost (i.e., cost of repeating the same task in a single-task vs. a mixed-task block) and a less reliable increase in switch cost (i.e., cost of switching vs. repeating tasks in a mixed-task block) in old as compared to young adults. However, there is substantial variability between studies in the emergence and size of age effects on mixing and/or switch cost. In this study, we examined variation in mixing cost and switch cost as a function of task practice and preparation interval across the adult lifespan (18-79 years) using a paradigm that promotes advance preparation and reduces cue encoding differences between switch and repeat trials. Both preparation interval and task practice modulated mixing cost and switch cost-but task practice mediated the effects of preparation interval and age differentially for mixing cost and switch cost. Mixing cost was consistently larger in older participants, reduced with preparation and varied little with task practice. In contrast, the effect of preparation interval on switch cost varied with task practice. Reduction in switch cost with preparation interval emerged in younger participants by the second practice session and even later in older participants. When fully practiced, older participants showed greater mixing cost but less switch cost than younger participants. Age effects on both mixing cost and switch cost were mediated by changes in processing of repeat trials, indicative of reduced differentiation between switch and repeat trials in mixed-task blocks. This is consistent with reduced cognitive flexibility with increasing age.     

汉-英双语者言语理解中语码切换的机制——来自亚词汇水平的证据

以汉字义符和英文词后缀为对象,考察了汉-英双语者语码切换的机制及切换代价的来源。结果表明:(1)在亚词汇水平上,汉字义符和英文词后缀影响字词认知的过程,但对语码切换代价的影响不显著,支持语码切换与任务转换的发生机制相同的观点。(2)语言熟练程度是影响语码切换代价及切换代价不对称性的主要原因。整个研究表明,在亚词汇水平上,语码切换与任务转换的实质相同。参考任务转换中切换代价的来源,归纳了语码切换代价的可能来源。     

沉没成本效应中的心理学问题

沉没成本效应是一种常见的非理性行为。本文从心理学角度对其进行了系统地介绍。文章概括了沉没成本及沉没成本效应的定义,沉没成本的种类和发生领域,并用心理学理论对沉没成本效应进行了解释。此外．文章还讨论了沉没成本的逆效应以及影响沉没成本效应的主要因素。     

语言转换的认知及其神经机制

语言转换是双语研究领域的焦点问题之一,抑制控制模型、语言特异性选择模型、任务设置惯性模型和序列难度效应模型从不同的角度解释了语言转换的认知机制。认知神经科学的一些研究发现,语言转换与任务转换具有类似的神经机制,说明语言转换代价与任务转换代价的本质可能是相同的。抑制控制和语言熟练程度如何影响语言的转换,语言转换代价与任务转换代价的本质是否相同,一般领域的抑制机制是否可以迁移到语言转换领域等问题是未来需要进一步研究的问题。     

Targeting the probability versus cost of feared outcomes in public speaking anxiety

Cognitive-behavioral theory suggests that social phobia is maintained, in part, by overestimates of the probability and cost of negative social events. Indeed, empirically supported cognitive-behavioral treatments directly target these cognitive biases through the use of in vivo exposure or behavioral experiments. While cognitive-behavioral theories and treatment protocols emphasize the importance of targeting probability and cost biases in the reduction of social anxiety, few studies have examined specific techniques for reducing probability and cost bias, and thus the relative efficacy of exposure to the probability versus cost of negative social events is unknown. In the present study, 37 undergraduates with high public speaking anxiety were randomly assigned to a single-session intervention designed to reduce either the perceived probability or the perceived cost of negative outcomes associated with public speaking. Compared to participants in the probability treatment condition, those in the cost treatment condition demonstrated significantly greater improvement on measures of public speaking anxiety and cost estimates for negative social events. The superior efficacy of the cost treatment condition was mediated by greater treatment-related changes in social cost estimates. The clinical implications of these findings are discussed.     

Spill‐over effects of intermittent costs for defection in social dilemmas

This research investigates the role of intermittent monetary costs in restraining individuals from defection in social dilemmas. In Experiment 1, 104 car owners made fictitious choices between a slow and a fast travel mode in the context of a continuous social dilemma. There were four different conditions of monetary costs for choosing the fast mode (defection): no cost, low cost, high cost to self, or high cost to others. Participants defected most when there was no cost and least when they themselves were charged a high cost. A spill‐over effect was obtained such that when others were charged a high cost to defect, defection rates were lower than under no cost. Experiment 2 used 36 undergraduates as participants in an iterated decision task with real groups. The results replicated the major results of Experiment 1. Furthermore, whereas prosocials were strongly affected by intermittent costs for defection (i.e. showed large spill‐over effects), proselfs seemed to be unaffected. Possible explanations of this interaction effect between social value orientation and intermittent punishment for defection are provided. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Stimulus-related priming during task switching

Task switch cost (the deficit of performing a new task vs. a repeated task) has been partly attributed to priming of the repeated task, as well as to inappropriate preparation for the switched task. In the present study, we examined the nature of the priming effect by repeating stimulus-related processes, such as stimulus encoding or stimulus identification. We adopted a partial-overlap task-switching paradigm, in which only stimulus-related processes should be repeated or switched. The switch cost in this partial-overlap condition was smaller than the cost in the full-overlap condition, in which the task overlap involved more than stimulus processing, indicating that priming of a stimulus is a component of a switch cost. The switch cost in the partial-overlap condition, however, disappeared eventually with a long interval between two tasks, whereas the cost in the full-overlap condition remained significant. Moreover, the switch cost, in general, did not interact with foreknowledge, suggesting that preparation on the basis of foreknowledge may be related to processes beyond stimulus encoding. These results suggest that stimulus-related priming is automatic and short-lived and, therefore, is not a part of the persisting portion of switch cost.     

The role of cost in adolescent students' maladaptive academic outcomes

Motivation wields a tangible impact on students' academic functioning. Among the theoretical frameworks used to explain students' motivation to learn, Eccles et al.'s expectancy-value theory (1983) is one of the most influential. It has been used to investigate students' competence- and value-related beliefs and how they are associated with academic-related choices, learning behaviors, and achievement. In the learning context, cost has mostly been discussed under the expectancy-value framework as a sub-dimension of task value and conceptualized as reflecting the negative aspects of task engagement. The issue of cost has recently attracted growing interest among scholars, providing a way to explain the dynamics of student motivation. However, cost is still underexplored in the empirical literature. In the present study, we assessed adolescent students' perceived cost (i.e., effort cost, opportunity cost, ego cost, and emotional cost) of studying math and examined its unique relations with academic motivation and achievement. Across a series of three studies, we found that cost is empirically distinct from the utility, attainment, and interest components of task value and is closely related to students' maladaptive academic outcomes. In particular, cost showed unique associations with adolescent students' test anxiety, disorganization, adoption of avoidance goals, avoidance intentions, and academic achievement. The present study's findings highlight the importance of including cost as a unique construct alongside value to more fully capture students' motivational dynamics in school.     

Resource Cost Analysis: We Really Need to Know

Analysis of costs in delivering special services is seen within the context of increasing demands by various consituencies for cost accountability and containment. The problem of analyzing such cost is considered and approaches to cost analysis are delineated. The Resource Cost Model is suggested as a useful cost analysis method and discussed in terms of potential advantages and limitations at local school levels.     

Response Selection Contributes to the Preparation Cost for Bimanual Asymmetric Movements

Movement preparation of bimanual asymmetric movements takes more time than bimanual symmetric movements in choice reaction-time conditions. This bimanual asymmetric cost may be caused by increased processing demands on any stage of movement preparation. The authors tested the contributions of each stage of movement preparation to the asymmetric cost by using the additive factors method. This involved altering the stimulus contrast, response compatibility, and response complexity. These manipulations changed the processing demands on stimulus identification, response selection, and response programming, respectively. Any manipulation with a larger reaction time cost than control suggests that stage contributes to the bimanual asymmetric cost. The bimanual asymmetric cost was larger for incompatible stimuli, which supports that response selection contributes to the bimanual asymmetric cost.     

Is there a general task switching ability?

Participants were tested on two analogous task switching paradigms involving Shape/Size tasks and Vertical/Horizontal tasks, respectively, and three measures of psychometric intelligence, tapping fluid, crystallized and perceptual speed abilities. The paradigms produced similar patterns of group mean reaction times (RTs) and the vast majority of the participants showed switching cost (switch RT minus repeat RT), mixing cost (repeat RT minus single-task RT) and congruency effects. The shared intra-individual variance across paradigms and with psychometric intelligence served as criteria for general ability. Structural equations modeling indicated that switching cost with ample preparation ("residual cost") and mixing cost met these criteria. However, switching cost with little preparation and congruency effects were predominantly paradigm specific.     

Some effects of response cost upon human operant behavior

Three experiments are reported which investigated the effects of cost (point loss per response) upon human-observer responses maintained by VI and FI schedules of reinforcement (acquisition of points via critical-signal detections). (I) Cost attenuated VI response rates without substantially disturbing the constancy of responding, regardless of the presentation sequence of the no-cost and cost conditions. (II) FI scalloping appeared only under cost conditions. Under no cost, a constant rate of responding (similar to VI performance) characterized inter-reinforcement intervals. Exposure to cost did not prevent the recovery of previously established no-cost baselines. (III) FI irregularities, analogous to those commonly observed under FI reinforcement schedules, may be produced by different temporal presentations of the no-cost and cost conditions.

The results of all three experiments emphasize the importance of cost as a factor in the maintenance of human behavior on schedules of positive reinforcement.

     

佛山市急性阑尾炎住院费用比较分析

对医保与非医保患者费用进行比较,分析医保病例的费用特点及相应的费用控制办法。采用协方差分析和秩和检验分析两组患者的费用情况。结果显示,在急性单纯性阑尾炎治疗费用上,医保患者的费用高于非医保患者。提倡政府应加强对医疗费用的监督,改革供方支付方式,建立公平竞争的医疗市场机制等。     

Cost's Influence on Attitudes and Value: Beyond Dissonance Theory

Subjects read a scenario regarding a future experiment that required participants to submerge their hand in a bucket filled with cold water and ice cubes for varying amounts of time. They were told that, because they had to undergo a cost experience, they would be shown a movie. Subjects then rated the enjoyment value of the movie based on experiencing different levels of cost. In the 1 sec/minimal cost and 60 sec/above-average cost conditions, subjects rated the movie's perceived value as being higher than in the 30 sec/below-average cost condition. These results can be accounted for by personal equity-comparison theory and by the related schema maintenance through compensation analysis. At the general level, we discuss the implications of these data for an understanding of how cost and other inconsistent events influence expectations, attitudes, hopes, and value.     

汉-英双语者图片命名任务中的语码切换代价

在图片命名范式下探讨了汉-英双语者汉、英两种语言之间的语码切换代价及影响切换代价不对称性的因素.实验一中发现了汉-英双语者的语码切换代价,但语码切换代价并未表现出不对称性;在加入时间间隔（ISI）变量后,短ISI条件下,汉-英双语者的语码切换代价表现出了不对称性,表现为从第二语言到第一语言的切换代价更大;而长ISI条件下,汉-英双语者的语码切换代价是对称的.这表明,图片命名任务中可出现语码切换代价,且ISI是影响语码切换代价不对称性的重要因素,支持并丰富了对优势语言的抑制说.     

Dissociating the components of switch cost using two-to-two cue-task mapping

In the task switch paradigm, a switch of task is typically accompanied by a change in task cue. It has been proposed that the performance deficit usually observed when switching tasks is actually the result of changing cues. To test this possibility, we used a 2:2 cue-task mapping in which each cue indicated 2 different tasks. With advance presentation of a cue, the cost associated with changing cues disappeared, though a substantial task switch cost remained. Without advance cues, the relative contributions of task switch cost and cue change cost differed by transition frequencies. The results suggest that task execution contributes to switch cost independent of cue changes.     

The sunk cost effect across species: A review of persistence in a course of action due to prior investment

The sunk cost effect is the bias or tendency to persist in a course of action due to prior investments of effort, money or time. At the time of the only review on the sunk cost effect across species (Arkes & Ayton, 1999), research with nonhuman animals had been ecological in its nature, and the findings about the effect of past investments on current choice were inconclusive. However, in the last decade a new line of experimental laboratory‐based research has emerged with the promise of revolutionizing the way we approach the study of the sunk cost effect in nonhumans. In the present review we challenge Arkes and Ayton's conclusion that the sunk cost effect is exclusive to humans, and describe evidence for the sunk cost effect in nonhuman animals. By doing so, we also challenge the current explanations for the sunk cost effect in humans, as they are not applicable to nonhumans. We argue that a unified theory is called for, because different independent variables, in particular, investment amount, have the same influence on the sunk cost effect across species. Finally, we suggest possible psychological mechanisms shared across different species, contrast and depreciation, that could explain the sunk cost effect.     

Task-switch costs subsequent to cue-only trials

There is abundant evidence that there is a performance cost associated with switching between tasks. This “switch cost” has been postulated to be driven by task performance on the preceding trial, but recent research challenges any necessary role of previous task performance in driving the cost. Across three experiments, we investigated whether it is difficult to switch from a task that was prepared but never performed. We replicated the finding of a switch cost following cue-only trials (involving no task performance) whilst controlling for a potential cue-switching confound. This cost was larger than that following completed trials when preparation interval was short (300?ms), and it reduced significantly with a longer preparation interval (1000?ms) on the current trial. We also found that preparing only to attend to a particular visual dimension (colour or shape) was sufficient to drive a significant subsequent switch cost, which appeared to be residual in nature; we speculate that this cost may reflect the persistence of unfulfilled task intentions and/or a strategic slowing when consecutive intentions conflict.     

A more complete task-set reconfiguration in random than in predictable task switch

Three experiments are presented that compare the cost found when switching from one task to another in two different conditions. In one of them, the tasks switch in predictable sequences. In the other condition, the tasks alternate at random. A smaller time cost is found in the random-switch condition when enough preparation time is allowed. Such an effect is due to the random-switch cost continuing to decrease with preparation time after the predictable-switch cost has reached an asymptote. Although the relationship between number of repetitions of one task and time cost is different in the random- and the predictable-switch conditions, only the latter shows the presence of an "exogenous" component of cost. The implications of this finding are discussed in relationship with the usual distinction between an endogenous component of switch cost that is affected by preparation time and another exogenous, residual component (e.g., Rogers & Monsell, 1995). It is proposed that a different kind of task-set preparation is at work when tasks alternate at random.