A longitudinal study of personality change in young adulthood

The present research examined personality continuity and change in a sample of young men and women assessed at the beginning and end of college. Two-hundred seventy students completed measures of the Big Five personality traits when they first entered college and then 4 years later. Analyses indicate small- to medium-sized normative (i.e., mean-level) changes, large rank-order stability correlations, high levels of stability in personality structure, and moderate levels of ipsative (i.e. profile) stability. Overall, the findings are consistent with the perspective that personality traits exhibit considerable continuity over time, yet can change in systematic ways.     

Adolescent depressed mood and young adult functioning: A longitudinal study

The present study examined two aspects of depressed mood in adolescence: (1) stability across the adolescent years and (2) ability to predict functioning in young adulthood. Participants included 82 Caucasian individuals (46 females and 36 males) who were assessed one time per year for 4 consecutive years during adolescence (mean age at initial assessment = 13.5 years) and again during young adulthood (mean age = 19). The results indicated that depressed mood, as measured by the Children's Depression Inventory (CDI), remained relatively stable across at least 3 consecutive years of data collection during adolescence. In addition, adolescent CDI scores predicted young adult functioning in each of four areas: prosocial competence, self-esteem, externalizing problems, and internalizing problems.This study was supported, in part, by the William T. Grant Foundation and the University of Georgia's Institute for Behavioral Research.     

Developmental change in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in boys: A four-year longitudinal study

One hundred six clinic-referred boys meeting criteria for DSM-III-R attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) (mean age 9.4 years) were assessed annually for 4 years using structured interviews of multiple informants. Hyperactivity—impulsivity symptoms declined with increasing age, but inattention symptoms did not. Rather, inattention declined only from the first to the second assessment and remained stable thereafter in boys of all ages. The rate of decline in hyperactivity—impulsivity symptoms was independent of the amount and type of treatment received. Boys who still met criteria for ADHD in Years 3 and 4 were significantly younger, more hyperactive—impulsive, and more likely to exhibit conduct disorder in Year 1 than boys who no longer met criteria in Years 3 and 4.This study was supported by grant 1-R01-MH42529 from the National Insitute of Mental Health to Rolf Loeber and Benjamin B. Lahey.     

Transition to motherhood: A longitudinal study

A prospective longitudinal study assessed the development of the mother-child relationship within the context of other important aspects of transition to parenthood. In the prenatal phase, 238 women who were 8 months pregnant with their first child completed a set of questionnaires. At 1 month post-partum, 165 of these women completed a second set of questionnaires, and a subset of 86 were observed for 1 hour at home with their infants. When their child was 2 years old, 62 of the 86 mothers completed questionnaires and were observed in interaction with their toddler in the laboratory. The several hundred individual variables were reduced to internally consistent composite variables, 5 in the prenatal phase, 7 postpartum, and 14 in the toddler phase. Preliminary analyses reported in this paper assessed the structure of relationships among the composite variables within each phase (Pearson correlations) and whether there was significant prediction from one dimension to another across the phases, beyond stability in the predicted dimension (multiple regressions). Causal modeling analyses are still in progress. The results indicate that the development of maternal attachment is a gradual process and that feelings of attachment are related to a number of other measures of women's psychological well-being. Parenting confidence was found to play a central role in adaptation to motherhood within each phase, as well as from the prenatal to postpartum and postpartum to toddler phases.     

Progressive changes in articulatory patterns in verbal apraxia: A longitudinal case study

This research reports findings in a 10-year study of an apraxic adult, who was one of five subjects described by Shankweiler and Harris, (Cortex, ,2 277–292, 1966). Confusion matrices and feature analysis were used to compare 1965 and 1975 performances. Results indicate that over the 10-year period, errors of place, manner, and omission were markedly reduced. Voicing errors, however, while reduced in total number, still constituted a significant percentage of the patient's residual errors. Implications of these findings are discussed.     

Stability and change in adult intelligence: 1. Analysis of longitudinal covariance structures

We address two questions of central interest in adult intellectual development: the equivalence of psychometric tests' measurement properties at different ages, and the stability of individual differences in intelligence over time. We performed a series of longitudinal factor analyses using the LISREL program to model longitudinal data from Schaie's Seattle Longitudinal Study. The results indicate complete invariance in the loadings of five subtests of Thurstone's Primary Mental Abilities battery on a general intelligence factor. Individual differences in general intelligence were highly stable over 14-year epochs, with standardized factor correlations averaging about .9 between adjacent 7-year testing intervals. These results indicate that most individuals in this relatively select longitudinal sample maintained their relative ordering in intelligence.     

A longitudinal study of the determinants and outcomes of career change

The present longitudinal field study investigated the antecedents and consequences of an actual career change. The framework for this study was Rhodes and Doering's (1983) model of career change. We examined the effect of individual and organisational characteristics on career change behaviour. The individual characteristics were: traits (Openness to Experience, Extraversion, Conscientiousness and general self-efficacy), demographic factors (age, gender, marital status, and children), human capital (education level and occupational tenure), job satisfaction, job search activity and intentions to leave; and organisational factors (job security and salary). The findings showed that a range of individual characteristics were associated with career change including, Openness to Experience, Extraversion, gender, age, educational level, and occupation tenure. However, job security was the only organisational factor related to career change. One year after career change, individuals reported higher job satisfaction, improved job security and a reduction in the number of hours worked.     

Readiness to adaptively change under three conditions: Clinical,careers, and natural change situations

The Adaptive Change Model (ACM) was developed as an alternative form of the Transtheoretical Model of Change to address some of the criticisms of early operationalisation. Both models provide a framework for measuring the potentialities of change and to facilitate targeted behaviour change in general and clinical settings. In this research, the eight factors of the Adaptive Change Questionnaire (ACQ) operationalising the ACM were validated using confirmatory factor analysis, involving 238 respondents. The findings indicated a good fit between the model and data. A comparison of the mean scores of the factors of the ACM showed respondents seeking clinical therapy (n = 85) were lower on self‐rating of factors related to adaptive change than a group receiving career counselling (n = 88) and a non‐therapy group (n = 65). The ACQ factors correctly predicted the allocation of 79.3% of the clinical and non‐therapy respondents which confirmed previous research. The relevance of the findings for therapeutic interventions and future research are discussed.     

A longitudinal study of an adult with aphasia: Considerations for research and therapy

This paper described investigation and therapy carried out over a one year period with an adult aphasic patient characterized by severe impairment of auditory comprehension. A deblocking technique was used to reintegrate the mechanisms for correlating sound and meaning. The visual mode of presentation of linguistic material was used both to provide a stable representation of speech units and to allow reinforcement of auditory representations. The patient was given tasks of repetition, reading aloud, and sequencing, using progressively more complex material. The behavior of the patient gives support to the viability of the theoretical constructs of linguistics: this can be seen in the differential processing of function words vs. content words, and in the orderly progression of improvement through stages explicable as the recovery of well-defined and hierarchically dependent subcomponents of linguistic organization.     

Stability and change in interests: A longitudinal study of adolescents from grades 8 through 12

The pattern of RIASEC interests and academic skills were assessed longitudinally from a large-scale national database at three time points: eight grade, 10th grade, and 12th grade. Validation and cross-validation samples of 1000 males and 1000 females in each set were used to test the pattern of these scores over time relative to mean changes, stability, crystallization, and interest-career choice congruence as well as how these patterns were moderated by gender. Results indicate that the pattern of interests was fairly stable in grades 8-12 for males and females. Interests were also found to become more crystallized over time; however interest-career choice congruence evidenced an inverted V pattern. With further examination, student interests became less people based and their career choices more people based in grade 12. The results support the importance of grade 12 as a time of focus for research and intervention, and for continuing investigation of gender differences in adolescent career and academic development.     

Gender differences and developmental change in externalizing disorders from late adolescence to early adulthood: A longitudinal twin study

Using data from over 1,000 male and female twins participating in the Minnesota Twin Family Study, the authors examined developmental change, gender differences, and genetic and environmental contributions to the symptom levels of four externalizing disorders (adult antisocial behavior, alcohol dependence, nicotine dependence, and drug dependence) from ages 17 to 24. Both men and women increased in symptoms for each externalizing disorder, with men increasing at a greater rate than women, such that a modest gender gap at age 17 widened to a large one at age 24. Additionally, a mean-level gender difference on a latent Externalizing factor could account for the mean-level gender differences for the individual disorders. Biometric analyses revealed increasing genetic variation and heritability for men but a trend toward decreasing genetic variation and increasing environmental effects for women. Results illustrate the importance of gender and developmental context for symptom expression and the utility of structural models to integrate general trends and disorder-specific characteristics.     

A longitudinal examination of early adolescence ethnic identity trajectories

Early adolescence is marked by transitions for adolescents, and is also a time for identity exploration. Ethnic identity is an essential component of youths' sense of self. In this study we examined the trajectories of ethnic identity for adolescents from ethnic minority backgrounds during a 4-year period. Six latent class trajectories were identified in the study: the majority of adolescents (41.8%) displayed growth in ethnic identity over 4 years, followed by 30.1% whose high levels of ethnic identity remained stable, then by those who experienced moderate decreases in ethnic identity (10.8%). Another class of adolescents (7.3%) showed significant declines in ethnic identity level, followed by 5.5% of adolescents with significant increases, and finally by 4.5% of adolescents with low stable levels of ethnic identity during this developmental period. The classes differed by ethnicity, and adolescents with increasing high levels of ethnic identity reported better parent-child relationships. Findings and implications are discussed.     

Adolescent personality antecedents of adult cigarette smoking: a longitudinal study

Comprehensive personality assessments, made independently for early and late adolescence, were employed to predict smoking onset and maximum number of cigarettes smoked per day as reported by adult smokers. Also, comparisons were made between adult smokers and nonsmokers. The results indicate that men who had been more sexually active as adolescents smoked more but that women who had been more emotionally constricted and under more conflict as adolescents were heavier smokers. Smoking started earlier for men who had showed little self-awareness and a rather macho orientation during their adolescence; early-smoking women tended to have been conventionally feminine. Personality differences between future smokers and nonsmokers were few but showed similar sex differences. The results suggest that manifesting once traditional sex-role characteristics for both adolescent boys and girls presages early onset and heavier adult cigarette smoking. Preventive antismoking educational campaigns aimed at youth might be guided by these findings because they suggest some motivational bases that may find later expression in smoking practices.     

Mechanisms of change in adolescent life satisfaction: A longitudinal analysis

This study explored the psychosocial mechanisms of change associated with differences in levels and linear change of adolescents' global life satisfaction across a 2-year time period. Based on a theoretical model proposed by Evans (1994), this study tested the relations between selected personality (i.e., extraversion and neuroticism) and environmental (stressful life events) variables and global life satisfaction when mediated by internalizing and externalizing problems. The results suggested support for internalizing problems as a mediator of the relationship of personality and environmental variables with life satisfaction. Pathways mediated by internalizing problems significantly predicted levels and linear change of life satisfaction across a 2-year time span. Furthermore, pathways mediated by externalizing problems significantly predicted the level but not the linear change of life satisfaction. Thus, behavior problems and their antecedents appear to relate significantly to adolescents' perceptions of their quality of life. Implications for adolescent mental health promotion were discussed.     

Stability and change in feelings of loneliness: A two-year prospective longitudinal study of advanced alcohol abusers

In order to study the changing nature of loneliness in a prospective design, 78 alcoholics were examined twice with an interval of two years. Change scores in loneliness were correlated with change scores in social network, psychological well-being, life-satisfaction, activities, adaptation to one's work and non-work situation, psychiatric symptoms and alcohol consumption. In addition, a step-wise multiple regression analysis with loneliness change as the dependent variable was performed. Change in loneliness was accompanied by changes in well-being (especially indolence, self-esteem and perceived treatment from others), mood-related psychiatric variables and satisfaction with autonomy and life as a whole. However, other variables, like satisfaction with one's social network and a number of non-cyclic psychiatric disorders, did not change along with loneliness, despite stable cross-sectional links. The discrepancy between the cross-sectional and the longitudinal correlation patterns may be indicative of different forms of loneliness in regard to temporal stability.     

Group identity and peer relations: A longitudinal study of group identity,perceived peer acceptance,and friendships amongst ethnic minority English children

This research examined whether peer relationships amongst ethnic minority status children reflect the social groups to which children belong and the degree to which they identify with these groups. A longitudinal study was conducted to investigate the influence of group identities (i.e., ethnic and national) on children's perceived peer acceptance and preference for same‐ethnic friendships. Measures of ethnic and English identification, perceived peer acceptance, and friendship choice were administered to 207 south‐Asian English children, aged between 5 and 11, at two time points 6 months apart. In line with predictions, longitudinal analysis showed that bicultural identification (i.e., higher ethnic and English identity) was related to higher perceived peer acceptance and less preference for same‐ethnic friendships. Importantly, as hypothesized, this finding was limited to the older children with more advanced social‐cognitive abilities. The results suggest that older children who adopted a bicultural identity were able to strategically ‘flag’ their multiple group identities, within their multicultural peer groups, to obtain acceptance amongst the maximum number of peers and show less preference for same‐ethnic friendships. This study extends previous peer relations research, which has typically focused on individual social deficits or classroom norms, by showing that group identities influence peer relationships amongst ethnic minority status children.     

IQ change and occupational level: A longitudinal study with Third Harvard Growth Study participants

Eighty subjects from a larger number of participants in a longitudinal study were selected according to their 1916 Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test scores, administered in the 1930s, and their 1977 occupations. They were then individually administered the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale. The research questions asked were: Did subjects shift their positions relative to age peers with regard to measured intelligence from Time 1 (1930s) testing to Time 2 (1977) testing? And, if they did, were these shifts related to their occupational levels? A secondary question asked whether subjects as a group showed mean T score increments between test times. A Pearson correlation coefficient (r = .62) showed that subjects had significantly maintained their positions relative to peers with regard to measured intelligence over approximately one-half of a century. The hypothesis that persons in higher level occupations should show greater gains in measured intelligence over time was not supported. Using multiple regression procedures, no significant difference was found from analysis of effects of occupational level on D (D = T₂ ? T₁) scores. An 80-subject mean T score increase (M = +8.13) was found. This represented an average increase of four-fifths of a standard deviation in T score units. These data suggest that, on average, persons increase in mental abilities over time while maintaining IQ positions relative to peers and that those changes in IQ which do occur are not related to occupational level experience.