Scheduling observational and physical practice: Influence on the coding of simple motor sequences

The main purpose of the present experiment was to determine the coordinate system used in the development of movement codes when observational and physical practice are scheduled across practice sessions. The task was to reproduce a 1,300-ms spatial–temporal pattern of elbow flexions and extensions. An intermanual transfer paradigm with a retention test and two effector (contralateral limb) transfer tests was used. The mirror effector transfer test required the same pattern of homologous muscle activation and sequence of limb joint angles as that performed or observed during practice, and the nonmirror effector transfer test required the same spatial pattern movements as that performed or observed. The test results following the first acquisition session replicated the findings of Gruetzmacher, Panzer, Blandin, and Shea (2011) Gruetzmacher, N., Panzer, S., Blandin, Y. and Shea, C. H. 2011. Observation and coding of simple motor sequences. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 64: 1111–1123. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]. The results following the second acquisition session indicated a strong advantage for participants who received physical practice in both practice sessions or received observational practice followed by physical practice. This advantage was found on both the retention and the mirror transfer tests compared to the nonmirror transfer test. These results demonstrate that codes based in motor coordinates can be developed relatively quickly and effectively for a simple spatial–temporal movement sequence when participants are provided with physical practice or observation followed by physical practice, but physical practice followed by observational practice or observational practice alone limits the development of codes based in motor coordinates.     

Observation and physical practice: coding of simple motor sequences

An experiment was conducted to determine the coordinate system used in the development of movement codes during observation and utilized on later physical practice performance of a simple spatial-temporal movement sequence. The task was to reproduce a 1.3-s spatial-temporal pattern of elbow flexions and extensions. An intermanual transfer paradigm with a retention test and two transfer tests was used: a mirror transfer test where the same pattern of muscle activation and limb joint angles was required and a nonmirror transfer test where the visual-spatial pattern of the sequence was reinstated on the transfer test. The results indicated a strong advantage for participants in the physical practice condition when transferred to the mirror condition in which the motor coordinates (e.g., pattern of muscle activation and joint angles) were reinstated relative to transfer performance when the visual-spatial coordinates were reinstated (visual and spatial location of the target waveform). The observation group, however, demonstrated an advantage when the visual-spatial coordinates were reinstated. These results demonstrate that codes based in motor coordinates can be developed relatively quickly for simple rapid movement sequences when participants are provided physical practice, but observational practice limits the system to the development of codes based in visual-spatial coordinates. Performances of control participants, who were not permitted to practise or observe the task, were quite poor on all tests.     

Inter-manual transfer and practice: Coding of simple motor sequences

Previous research suggests that movements are represented early in practice in visual-spatial coordinates/codes, which are effector independent, and later in practice in motor coordinates/codes (e.g., joint angles, activation patterns), which are effector dependent. In the present experiments, the task was to reproduce 1.3 s patterns of elbow flexions and extensions. An inter-manual transfer paradigm was used in Experiment 1 and an inter-manual practice paradigm was used in Experiment 2. The present results clearly indicated a strong advantage of effector transfer when the motor coordinates available during acquisition were reinstated (Experiment 1) and demonstrate that inter-manual practice with the same motor coordinates results in enhanced retention performance relative to transfer and practice where the same visual-spatial coordinates are used. These results demonstrate that the more effective movement code (motor or visual-spatial) is dependent on the movement sequence characteristics (e.g., difficulty, number of elements, and mode of control [preplanned or on-line]). These results are also interesting because they indicate, contrary to previous findings with more complex movement sequences, that an effective motor code can be developed relatively early in practice for rapid movement sequences.     

Motor learning without physical practice: The effects of combined action observation and motor imagery practice on cup-stacking speed

In this study we explored training effects for combined action observation and motor imagery (AO + MI) instructions on a complex cup-stacking task, without physical practice. Using a Graeco-Latin Square design, we randomly assigned twenty-six participants into four groups. This counterbalanced the within-participant factor of practice condition (AO + MI, AO, MI, Control) across four cup-stacking tasks, which varied in their complexity. On each of the three consecutive practice days participants experienced twenty trials under each of the three mental practice conditions. On each trial, a first-person perspective video depicted bilateral cup-stacking performed by an experienced model. During AO, participants passively observed this action, responding only to occasional colour cues. For AO + MI, participants imagined performing the observed action and synchronised their concurrent MI with the display. For MI, a sequence of pictures cued imagery of each stage of the task. Analyses revealed a significant main effect of practice condition both at the ’surprise’ post-test (Day 3) and at the one-week retention test. At both time points movement execution times were significantly shorter for AO + MI compared with AO, MI and the Control. Execution times were also shorter overall at the retention compared with the post-test. These results demonstrate that a complex novel motor task can be acquired without physical training. Practitioners can therefore use AO + MI practice to supplement physical practice and optimise skill learning.     

Scheduling observational and physical practice: influence on the coding of simple motor sequences

The main purpose of the present experiment was to determine the coordinate system used in the development of movement codes when observational and physical practice are scheduled across practice sessions. The task was to reproduce a 1,300-ms spatial-temporal pattern of elbow flexions and extensions. An intermanual transfer paradigm with a retention test and two effector (contralateral limb) transfer tests was used. The mirror effector transfer test required the same pattern of homologous muscle activation and sequence of limb joint angles as that performed or observed during practice, and the non-mirror effector transfer test required the same spatial pattern movements as that performed or observed. The test results following the first acquisition session replicated the findings of Gruetzmacher, Panzer, Blandin, and Shea (2011) . The results following the second acquisition session indicated a strong advantage for participants who received physical practice in both practice sessions or received observational practice followed by physical practice. This advantage was found on both the retention and the mirror transfer tests compared to the non-mirror transfer test. These results demonstrate that codes based in motor coordinates can be developed relatively quickly and effectively for a simple spatial-temporal movement sequence when participants are provided with physical practice or observation followed by physical practice, but physical practice followed by observational practice or observational practice alone limits the development of codes based in motor coordinates.     

Manipulations to practice organization of golf putting skills through interleaved matched or mismatched practice with a partner

There is some evidence that alternating physical and observational practice with a partner for the same skill can benefit learning compared to practice alone. What has not been studied is whether a partner's interleaved practice impacts multi-skill learning, when the partner either matches or mismatches their partner’s skill. Here we manipulated partners’ practice schedules of two golf putting skills. Partners practiced the same (“matched”) or different skills in alternation (“mismatched”). Based on previous research where interleaved demonstrations have induced beneficial contextual interference effects, we hypothesized that mismatching a partner on consecutive trials should also promote a similar type of interference in practice, which ultimately aids learning. A third control group was tested, where only one partner practiced while the other observed. All groups practiced for two days, with individual retention tests at the start of day 2 and one week later. Taking turns practicing and observing a partner did not benefit learning compared to the control, pure physical practice group and the matched and mismatched groups did not differ in outcomes. There was, however, evidence that partners were adapting their actions (i.e., compensating for over or undershooting of the target) based on the shots of their partner, in a similar manner to how they were adapting to their own errors. Thus, although partners were influencing each other’s performance, it was not ultimately to the benefit (or cost) of overall learning. Partner-mismatching of skills through alternating practice was not sufficient to promote interference in practice and ultimately promote learning.     

Effects of interlimb practice on coding and learning of movement sequences

An interlimb practice paradigm was designed to determine the role that visual–spatial (Cartesian) and motor (joint angles, activation patterns) coordinates play in the coding and learning of complex movement sequences. Participants practised a 16-element movement sequence by moving a lever to sequentially presented targets with one limb on Day 1 and the contralateral limb on Day 2. Practice involved the same sequence with either the same visual–spatial or motor coordinates on the two days. A unilateral practice condition (control) was also tested where both coordinate systems were changed but the same limb was used. Retention tests were conducted on Day 3. Regardless of the order in which the limbs were used during practice, results indicated that keeping the visual–spatial coordinates the same during acquisition resulted in superior retention. This provides strong evidence that the visual–spatial code plays a dominant role in complex movement sequences, and this code is represented in an effector-independent manner.     

Test-potentiated learning of motor sequences

We investigated effects of retrieving body movements from memory on subsequent re-encoding of these movements (i.e., test-potentiated learning). In Experiment 1, participants first learned to perform 12 sequential finger movements as responses to letter stimuli. Eight of these movements then had to be recalled in response to their stimuli (initial test). Subsequently, learning trials were repeated for four of the previously to-be-retrieved movements as well as the previously not-to-be-retrieved movements. Restudy benefited from prior retrieval. In a final test, again requiring motoric recall in response to letter stimuli, performance was better for restudied items that were previously cued for retrieval as compared to items that had been restudied without prior retrieval. However, no such indirect testing benefit occurred when initial and final testing formats were incongruent, that is, when participants had to recall the stimuli in response to movements as cues at the final test. In Experiment 2, we replicated the finding of test-potentiated learning with a different design, manipulating initial-testing status between participants.     

Investigating speech motor practice and learning in people who stutter

In this exploratory study, we investigated whether or not people who stutter (PWS) show motor practice and learning changes similar to those of people who do not stutter (PNS). To this end, five PWS and five PNS repeated a set of non-words at two different rates (normal and fast) across three test sessions (T1, T2 on the same day and T3 on a separate day, at least 1 week apart). The results indicated that PWS and PNS may resemble each other on a number of performance variables (such as movement amplitude and duration), but they differ in terms of practice and learning on variables that relate to movement stability and strength of coordination patterns. These findings are interpreted in support of recent claims about speech motor skill limitations in PWS.

Educational objectives: The reader will be able to: (1) define oral articulatory changes associated with motor practice and learning and their measurement; (2) summarize findings from previous studies examining motor practice and learning in PWS; and (3) discuss hypotheses that could account for the present findings that suggest PWS and PNS differ in their speech motor learning abilities.     

Transfer of short-term motor learning across the lower limbs as a function of task conception and practice order

Interlimb transfer of motor learning, indicating an improvement in performance with one limb following training with the other, often occurs asymmetrically (i.e., from non-dominant to dominant limb or vice versa, but not both). In the present study, we examined whether interlimb transfer of the same motor task could occur asymmetrically and in opposite directions (i.e., from right to left leg vs. left to right leg) depending on individuals’ conception of the task. Two experimental conditions were tested: In a dynamic control condition, the process of learning was facilitated by providing the subjects with a type of information that forced them to focus on dynamic features of a given task (force impulse); and in a spatial control condition, it was done with another type of information that forced them to focus on visuomotor features of the same task (distance). Both conditions employed the same leg extension task. In addition, a fully-crossed transfer paradigm was used in which one group of subjects initially practiced with the right leg and were tested with the left leg for a transfer test, while the other group used the two legs in the opposite order. The results showed that the direction of interlimb transfer varied depending on the condition, such that the right and the left leg benefited from initial training with the opposite leg only in the spatial and the dynamic condition, respectively. Our finding suggests that manipulating the conception of a leg extension task has a substantial influence on the pattern of interlimb transfer in such a way that the direction of transfer can even be opposite depending on whether the task is conceived as a dynamic or spatial control task.     

A comparison of intra- and inter-limb relative motion information in modelling a novel motor skill

The importance of intra- and inter-limb relative motion in modelling a whole body coordination skill was examined. Participants were assigned to one of four groups: Full-Body point light model of a cricket bowler, INTRA-LIMB relative motion of the bowling arm, INTER-LIMB relative motions of the right and left wrists or NO-Relative motion, showing only the motions of the right wrist. During 60 acquisition trials, participants viewed the model five times before each 10-trial block. Retention was examined the following day. Although all groups improved on intra-limb coordination of the bowling arm, the INTRA-LIMB and FULL-BODY groups were more accurate than the INTER-LIMB group in acquisition, although these groups did not differ in retention. For inter-limb coordination, the three groups who received relative motion information performed more like the model than the NO-Relative motion group (even though the INTRA-LIMB group did not see the other limb). The amount of information within a display plays a constraining role on acquisition, perhaps more so than the type of information, such that the acquisition of coordination is more an emergent feature of observational learning, rather than a direct approximation of the model.     

Oculomotor behavior and the level of repetition in motor practice: Effects on pupil dilation,eyeblinks and visual scanning

The benefits of less repetitive practice in motor learning have been explained by the increased demand for memory processes during the execution of motor skills. Recently, a new perspective associating increased demand for perception with less repetitive practice has also been proposed. Augmented information gathering and visual scanning characterize this higher perceptual demand. To extend our knowledge about mental effort and perceptual differences in practice organization, the association between oculomotor behavior and type of practice was investigated. We required participants to press four keys with different absolute and relative timing goals during the acquisition phase. An eye-tracker captured visual scanning of the skill’s absolute and relative information displayed on the screen. Participants were tested 24 h after acquisition by a retention and transfer test. A higher level of both pupil dilation and amount of eyeblinks indicated an increased mental effort in less repetitive practice compared to more repetitive practice. Visual scanning of the skill’s relative and absolute information was specific to the type of practice. The findings indicate many differences in oculomotor behavior associated with the practice schedule.     

The effect of learner-adapted practice schedule and task similarity on motivation and motor learning in older adults

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effect of learner-adapted practice schedule and task similarity on intrinsic motivation and motor learning in older adults. For this purpose, 60 right-handed older adults were randomly divided into six groups of blocked-similar, learner-adapted-similar, random-similar, blocked-dissimilar, learner-adapted-dissimilar, and random-dissimilar. Sequential timing was used as the task, and the intrinsic motivation questionnaire was used for measuring individuals' motivation. The learner-adapted practice was included performing the task in a combination of blocked, serial, and random orders according to error number in each block. The results showed that the learner-adapted practice significantly outperformed than other practice schedules in motivation and motor learning measures in similar and dissimilar conditions. Also, the random schedule resulted in superior performance than the blocked schedule in similar and dissimilar conditions. These findings were discussed according to the challenge point framework.     

Self-controlled practice: Autonomy protects perceptions of competence and enhances motor learning

ObjectiveIn previous self-controlled feedback studies, it was observed that participants who could control their own feedback schedules usually use a strategy of choosing feedback after successful trials, and present superior motor learning when compared with participants who were not allowed to choose. Yoked participants of these studies, however, were thwarted not only regarding autonomy but also, presumably, regarding perceived competence, as their feedback schedules were provided randomly, regarding good or bad trials. The purpose of the present study was to examine whether self-controlled feedback schedules would have differential effects on learning if yoked participants are provided with feedback after good trials at the same rate as their self-controlled counterparts.DesignExperimental study with two groups. Timing accuracy was assessed in two different experimental phases, supplemented by questionnaire data.MethodParticipants practiced a coincident-anticipation timing task with a self-controlled or yoked feedback schedule during practice. Participants of the self-controlled group were able to ask for feedback for two trials, after each of five 6-trial practice blocks. Yoked participants received a feedback schedule matching the self-control group schedule, according to accuracy.ResultsParticipants asked for (self-controlled group) and received (yoked group) feedback, mainly after relatively good trials. However, participants of the self-controlled group reported greater self-efficacy at the end of practice, and performed with greater accuracy one day later, on the retention test, than the yoked group.ConclusionsThe findings indicate that the autonomy provided by self-controlled feedback protocols can raise learners' perceptions of competence, with positive consequences on motor learning.     

Repetition of a cognitive task promotes motor learning

Motor learning plays an important role in the acquisition of new motor skills. In this study, we investigated whether repetition of a cognitive task promoted motor learning. Fifty-one young adults were assigned to either the early, late, or control groups. All participants completed a mouse tracking task in which they manipulated a mouse to track a moving target on a screen. The cursor was rotated 165° in the counterclockwise direction from the actual mouse position, requiring participants to learn how to use a new tool. To determine the task performance, we calculated the distance between the cursor and target position. In addition, to assess the effects of a cognitive task on the progress of motor learning, curve fitting of the learning curves was performed for the total distance. Experiments were conducted as per the following schedule: learning day 1 (L1), learning day 2 (L2: the day after learning day 1), retention day 1 (R1: 2 weeks after learning day 1), and retention day 2 (R2: 4 weeks after learning day 1). Participants underwent mouse tracking for 20 min on L1 and L2 and for 3 min on R1 and R2. As a cognitive task, we adopted the N-back task. The early or late group performed the N-back task for 20 min before performing motor tracking task on L1 or L2, respectively. The control group did not perform the N-back task. Based on curve fitting analysis, it was observed that the rate of change for motor learning in the early group was higher than that in the control group. The retention of motor learning did not differ between all groups. Our results indicate that the repetition of a cognitive task enhanced in the early phase of motor learning of the mouse tracking task.     

Dissociative effects of normative feedback on motor automaticity and motor accuracy in learning an arm movement sequence

Within a pre-post-design, we scrutinized the effects of normative augmented feedback with positive and negative valence on learning motor accuracy, consistency as well as automaticity by means of a dual-task paradigm. Forty-two healthy physical education students were instructed to produce an arm-movement sequence as precisely as possible with regard to three spatial reversal points within a time limit of 1200 ms. Twenty-eight practiced an elbow-extension-flexion-sequence (690 trials) and 14 participants were tested as a control group without feedback practice. Valence of normative feedback was systematically manipulated by means of reference lines in a visual feedback display. The reference lines indicated performance of a putative peer-group either to be superior (negative valence, Normative-Negative-Group) or inferior (positive valence, Normative-Positive-Group) to participants’ actual performance.As a result, dual-task costs (n-back error) significantly decreased solely in the Normative-Positive-Group, p = .003, η²_p = .51, but in no other group. Surprisingly, the mean absolute error for the motor task significantly decreased (i.e., precision increased) only in the Normative-Negative-Group with a large effect size, but in none of the other groups. Motor consistency was not significantly affected by the valence of normative feedback. According to the hypotheses of error-provoked attentional control, positive feedback-valence appears to enhance skill automatization, while – unexpectedly – only negative feedback-valence seems to enhance movement precision, which may be explained by effects of feedback valence on the learners aspiration level.     

Expecting to teach enhances motor learning and information processing during practice

Recent research has revealed that having learners study and practice a motor skill with the expectation of having to teach it enhances motor learning. However, the mechanisms underlying this effect remain unknown. We attempted to replicate this effect and elucidate the mechanisms underlying it. Thus, participants studied golf putting instructions and practiced putting either with the expectation of having to teach another participant how to putt or the expectation of being tested on their putting. During this acquisition phase, participants’ motivation, anxiety, and information processing (the duration they took preparing each putt) were indexed as possible mechanisms underlying a motor learning effect. One day and seven days after the acquisition phase, learning was assessed by testing all participants on their golf putting. Results revealed that expecting to teach enhanced motor learning, replicating the original finding. Moreover, expecting to teach increased the duration participants took preparing each putt, which was correlated with superior motor learning. Thus, results suggest expecting to teach enhances motor learning by increasing information processing during practice.     

The effect of augmented feedback on the performance and learning of gross motor and sport-specific skills: A systematic review

BackgroundAugmented feedback is often provided by coaches and practitioners as a method to enhance the performance of athletes and learners. When implementing a feedback intervention, it is important to assess the expertise of the learner and the complexity of the skill, to ensure an appropriate feedback modality, frequency, and timing is provided. However, researchers have a limited understanding of how these variables interact to influence the performance and learning of gross motor and sport-specific skills.ObjectivesThe purpose of this systematic review was to examine the effects of augmented feedback on the performance and learning of gross motor and sport-specific skills in an adult population.MethodsA systematic literature search was conducted on electronic databases, PubMed, Web of Science and PsycINFO, from inception to March 2020, with a revised search completed to January 2022. The search terms used were related to augmented feedback and motor performance and learning. Studies were included if they consisted of a randomised control trial with pre- and retention-testing measures, which investigated an AF intervention on a gross motor and/or sport-specific skill in a healthy adult population. Risk of bias was assessed using the revised Cochrane risk-of-bias tool for randomised trials (RoB2).ResultsTwenty-four studies were included, with a total of 895 participants. Most studies reported a learning improvement following the provision of AF. One study documented a decrease in performance, and two studies reported no learning improvement Conflicting evidence was reported regarding which feedback frequency, timing, and duration was most appropriate. Furthermore, the inconsistency in methodological designs (control group types; timing of retention-tests; lack of retention tests) limited the comparisons that could be made between studies. Eighteen studies reported a high risk of bias, with the remaining six presenting some concerns.ConclusionAlthough studies have shown positive effects of AF on the performance and learning of gross motor and sport-specific skills, the majority are at a high risk of bias. Additionally, studies lacked standardisation in methodology, and results surrounding features of AF interventions were conflicting. Despite the conceptually sound rationale, further research is required to provide stronger evidence and a more robust understanding to better inform practitioners on how AF truly impacts the performance and learning of gross motor and sport-specific skills.RegistrationThis systematic review was registered on the Open Science Framework (https://osf.io/mrxzg) (10.17605/OSF.IO/MRXZG)     

A developmental study of the influence of task characteristics on motor overflow

Motor overflow refers to involuntary movement or muscle activity that may coincide with voluntary movement. This study examined factors influencing motor overflow in 17 children (8-11 years), and 17 adults (18-35 years). Participants performed a finger pressing task by exerting either 33% or 66% of their maximal force output using their dominant or non-dominant hand. Attention was manipulated by tactile stimulation to one or both hands. Overflow relative to the target force was greater in children compared to adults, and at the lower target force for both groups, but was not influenced by attentional stimulation. Childhood overflow was greater when the left-hand performed the task. Although an immature motor system may underlie an inability to suppress involuntary movement, childhood overflow may provide motor stabilization.     

Decreased load on general motor preparation and visual-working memory while preparing familiar as compared to unfamiliar movement sequences

Learning movement sequences is thought to develop from an initial controlled attentive phase to a more automatic inattentive phase. Furthermore, execution of sequences becomes faster with practice, which may result from changes at a general motor processing level rather than at an effector specific motor processing level. In the current study, we examined whether these changes are already present during preparation. Fixed series of six keypresses, either familiar or unfamiliar, had to be prepared and executed/withheld after a go/nogo signal. Reaction time results confirmed that familiar sequences were executed faster than unfamiliar sequences. Results derived from the electroencephalogram showed a decreased demand on general motor preparation and visual-working memory before familiar sequences as compared to unfamiliar sequences. We propose that with familiar sequences the presetting segments of responses is less demanding than with unfamiliar sequences, as familiar sequences can be regarded as less complex than unfamiliar sequences. Finally, the decreasing demand on visual-working memory before familiar sequences suggests that sequence learning indeed develops from an attentive to an automatic phase.