Learning to read and write in Spanish: phonology in addition to which other processes? / Aprendiendo a leer y escribir en español: además de la fonología, ¿qué otros procesos?

Abstract

This study reviews some of the most relevant cognitive skills related to literacy acquisition in Spanish. Beyond the well-known influence of phonological segmental skills, it highlights the growing importance of other cognitive skills needed for acquisition, whether explicit or implicit in nature, to which too little attention has been devoted, including suprasegmental or prosodic skills, morphological skills and the implicit learning of linguistic regularities. It appears that all these skills constitute relevant factors that should be taken into account in order to understand typical as well as atypical literacy development.     

语文教学中的内隐学习

本文作者根据语文教学的目的,语文教学的结果和语文教学的内容特点,认为内隐学习在语文教学中,特别是汉语教学中,可起重要作用。然后．介绍了他们对这个问题进行的阔查和实验研究。实验证实,内隐学习和外显学习的效果没有磬异,或内隐学习的效果优于外显学习。而且,内隐学习具有较好的保持效果。因此,作者提出应充分重视内隐学习在语文教学中的作用。     

A temporally sustained implicit theory of mind deficit in autism spectrum disorders

Eye movements during false-belief tasks can reveal an individual’s capacity to implicitly monitor others’ mental states (theory of mind – ToM). It has been suggested, based on the results of a single-trial-experiment, that this ability is impaired in those with a high-functioning autism spectrum disorder (ASD), despite neurotypical-like performance on explicit ToM measures. However, given there are known attention differences and visual hypersensitivities in ASD it is important to establish whether such impairments are evident over time. In addition, investigating implicit ToM using a repeated trial approach allows an assessment of whether learning processes can reduce the ASD impairment in this ability, as is the case with explicit ToM. Here we investigated the temporal profile of implicit ToM in individuals with ASD and a control group. Despite similar performance on explicit ToM measures, ASD-diagnosed individuals showed no evidence of implicit false-belief tracking even over a one-hour period and many trials, whereas control participants did. These findings demonstrate that the systems involved in implicit and explicit ToM are distinct and hint that impaired implicit false-belief tracking may play an important role in ASD. Further, they indicate that learning processes do not alleviate this impairment across the presentation of multiple trials.     

Mutual influence of implicit and explicit attitudes

Research and theory distinguish two types of attitude: automatic evaluative reactions and deliberate evaluative judgments, referred to as implicit and explicit attitudes, respectively. Although these attitudes are distinct, they may influence each other. Four studies tested whether implicit and explicit attitudes are both influenced by propositional and associative learning. We also tested whether changes in one kind of attitude mediate changes in the other. Study 1 found that propositional learning about novel individuals directly influenced explicit attitudes and indirectly influenced implicit attitudes through changes in explicit attitudes. Studies 2 and 3 replicated this finding and extended it by simultaneously demonstrating that associative learning through Evaluative Conditioning directly influences implicit attitudes and indirectly influences explicit attitudes through changes in implicit attitudes. Study 4 replicated these effects for attitudes toward familiar, rather than novel, targets. These results suggest that implicit and explicit attitudes can share common antecedents and influence each other.     

Psychometric intelligence dissociates implicit and explicit learning

The hypothesis that performance on implicit learning tasks is unrelated to psychometric intelligence was examined in a sample of 605 German pupils. Performance in artificial grammar learning, process control, and serial learning did not correlate with various measures of intelligence when participants were given standard implicit instructions. Under an explicit rule discovery instruction, however, a significant relationship between performance on the learning tasks and intelligence appeared. This finding provides support for Reber's hypothesis that implicit learning, in contrast to explicit learning, is independent of intelligence, and confirms thereby the distinction between the 2 modes of learning. However, because there were virtually no correlations among the 3 learning tasks, the assumption of a unitary ability of implicit learning was not supported.     

儿童英语句法学习中内隐学习和外显学习的关系

本文以内隐学习理论为基础,采用强分离程序,分别选取有、无英语学习经验的被试,从句法学习方面探讨了儿童英语学习过程中内隐学习和外显学习的作用及关系,结果表明:(1)单纯的内隐学习方式或单纯的外显学习方式都不利于对句法规则的掌握;(2)两种学习方式的协同效应发挥着重要的作用,先外显学习后内隐学习的学习方式有助于句法规则的掌握;(3)内隐学习、先内隐学习后外显学习的学习方式不适用于较简单句法规则的学习;内隐学习也不适用于难度较高的句法规则的学习。     

Effect of environmental support on implicit and explicit memory in younger and older adults.

The study addressed 2 major issues: whether there are age differences on an implicit word-stem-completion task and whether age differences on both implicit and explicit memory would decrease with increased environmental support. A total of 287 Ss were presented with words in an incidental learning task with structural or semantic processing. Following 2 filler tasks, Ss received an implicit or an explicit word-stem-completion task. The number of letters in the stem varied from 2 to 4. Results yielded an Age x Memory Task dissociation such that there were large age differences on the explicit task and no age difference on the implicit task, regardless of whether Ss aware of the memory test were included or excluded. There was no evidence that environmental support improved older adults' performance more than that of younger adults on either memory task.     

自然科学概念形成过程中外显与内隐学习的比较

本研究选取真实的自然科学概念来对概念形成过程及其中的外显与内隐学习进行实验性探索．证明了自然科学概念形成过程中内隐学习的存在;阐释了概念形成过程中内隐学习的效率可与外显学习不相上下;揭示了真实的自然科学概念形成过程是由渐进期——高原期——突变期三个阶段构成的．不论外显学习还是内隐学习,接近真理的路径十分相似,并且没有显著的性别差异;此外还发现自然科学概念的内隐学习可以有效地用语言启动。本研究结果对心理学和自然科学教学均有理论价值与实践意义。     

Children retain implicitly learned phonological sequences better than adults: a longitudinal study

Whereas adults often rely on explicit memory, children appear to excel in implicit memory, which plays an important role in the acquisition of various cognitive skills, such as those involved in language. The current study aimed to test the assertion of an age‐dependent shift in implicit versus explicit learning within a theoretical framework that explains the link between implicit sequence memory and word‐form acquisition, using the Hebb repetition paradigm. We conducted a one‐year, multiple‐session longitudinal study in which we presented auditory sequences of syllables, co‐presented with pictures of aliens, for immediate serial recall by a group of children (8–9 years) and by an adult group. The repetition of one Hebb sequence was explicitly announced, while the repetition of another Hebb sequence was unannounced and, therefore, implicit. Despite their overall inferior recall performance, the children showed better offline retention of the implicit Hebb sequence, compared with adults who showed a significant decrement across the delays. Adults had gained more explicit knowledge of the implicit sequence than children, but this could not explain the age‐dependent decline in the delayed memory for it. There was no significant age‐effect for delayed memory of the explicit Hebb sequence, with both age groups showing retention. Overall performance by adults was positively correlated with measures of post‐learning awareness. Performance by children was positively correlated with vocabulary knowledge. We conclude that children outperform adults in the retention over time of implicitly learned phonological sequences that will gradually consolidate into novel word‐forms. The findings are discussed in the light of maturational differences for implicit versus explicit memory systems that also play a role in language acquisition. A video abstract of this article can be viewed at: https://youtu.be/G5nOfJB72t4     

Development of Different Forms of Skill Learning Throughout the Lifespan

The acquisition of complex motor, cognitive, and social skills, like playing a musical instrument or mastering sports or a language, is generally associated with implicit skill learning (SL). Although it is a general view that SL is most effective in childhood, and such skills are best acquired if learning starts early, this idea has rarely been tested by systematic empirical studies on the developmental pathways of SL from childhood to old age. In this paper, we challenge the view that childhood and early school years are the prime time for skill learning by tracking age‐related changes in performance in three different paradigms of SL. We collected data from participants between 7 and 87 years for (1) a Serial Reaction Time Task (SRT) testing the learning of motor sequences, (2) an Artificial Grammar Learning (AGL) task testing the extraction of regularities from auditory sequences, and (3) Probabilistic Category Learning in the Weather Prediction task (WP), a non‐sequential categorization task. Results on all three tasks show that adolescence and adulthood are the most efficient periods for skill learning, since instead of becoming less and less effective with age, SL improves from childhood into adulthood and then later declines with aging.     

学优生与学困生内隐与外显协同学习的比较研究

根据目前国内采用的标准,选取学优生和学困生各120人。运用内隐学习中的双条件人工语法材料和强分离的实验范式,考察和比较了两种学生的内隐学习、内隐与外显协同学习的成绩。结果显示:(1)学优生在外显学习、协同学习(先内隐后外显以及内隐与外显交替)方式下的成绩显著好于学困生,而在内隐学习方式下,二者成绩差异不显著。(2)学优生的外显学习及协同学习成绩显著好于内隐学习成绩,而学困生在四种学习方式下成绩差异不显著。表明在人工语法学习中学优生的有意识学习及其与无意识的协同学习效果较好,而学困生的有意识学习及协同学习较差。     

Adapted to explore: Reinforcement learning in Autistic Spectrum Conditions

Recent studies have recorded a tendency of individuals with Autism Spectrum Conditions (ASC) to continually change their choices in repeated choice tasks. In the current study we examine if this finding implies that ASC individuals have a cognitive style that facilitates exploration and discovery. Six decision tasks were administered to adolescents with ASC and matched controls. Significant differences in shifting between choice options appeared in the Iowa Gambling task (Bechara, Damasio, Damasio, & Anderson, 1994). A formal cognitive modeling analysis demonstrated that for about half of the ASC participants the adaptation process did not conform to the standard reinforcement learning model. These individuals were only coarsely affected by choice-outcomes, and were more influenced by the exploratory value of choices, being attracted to previously un-explored alternatives. An examination of the five simpler decision tasks where the advantageous option was easier to determine showed no evidence of this pattern, suggesting that the shifting choice pattern is not an uncontrollable tendency independent of task outcomes. These findings suggest that ASC individuals have a unique adaptive learning style, which may be beneficial is some learning environment but maladaptive in others, particularly in social contexts.     

内隐和外显道德评价的比较研究——来自眼动的证据

为探索内隐道德直觉和外显道德推理在道德评价中的差异及其内在机制,此研究将道德图片内容限定在伤害/关心维度,同时考虑道德效价以及情绪唤醒度,利用眼动追踪技术,考察内隐和外显道德任务中,道德直觉和道德推理的眼动轨迹及其加工过程差异。眼动结果发现,外显和内隐任务中个体均对低唤醒道德图片的首次注视时间更短,对低唤醒不道德图片总注视时间更长; 内隐任务和外显任务早期自动化加工阶段的平均凝视时间无显著差异; 内隐任务中,对不道德图片比对道德图片晚期平均凝视时间更长,瞳孔直径在中晚期时显著增加。此研究结果提示无论是道德直觉过程还是道德推理过程都是意识和无意识之间的相互作用,但是道德直觉过程的加工可能存在时间上的滞后性。     

Motor-Skill Learning in Alzheimer’s Disease: A Review with an Eye to the Clinical Practice

Since elderly people suffering from dementia want to go on living independently for as long as possible, they need to be able to maintain familiar and learn new practical skills. Although explicit or declarative learning methods are mostly used to train new skills, it is hypothesized that implicit or procedural techniques may be more effective in this population. The present review discusses 23 experimental studies on implicit motor-skill learning in patients with Alzheimer’s disease (AD). All studies found intact implicit motor-learning capacities. Subsequently, it is elaborated how these intact learning abilities can be exploited in the patients’ rehabilitation with respect to the variables ‘practice’ and ‘feedback.’ Recommendations for future research are provided, and it is concluded that if training programs are adjusted to specific needs and abilities, older people with AD are well able to (re)learn practical motor skills, which may enhance their autonomy.     

儿童对空间位置协变的外显学习和内隐学习的比较研究

内隐学习是无意识地获得关于刺激环境的复杂知识的过程,是不同于外显学习模式的另一种学习模式。空间位置协变是一种复杂的关系,能被人们加工、储存、运用却不被意识。本研究采用反应时和预估正确率两个指标,通过实验比较了儿童对空间位置协变的外显学习和内隐学习的效果。结果表明,儿童在面临像空间位置协变这样的复杂任务时有内隐学习模式出现,并且内隐学习的效果优于外显学习。     

What do you think about ink? An examination of implicit and explicit attitudes toward tattooed individuals

Tattoos are increasing in popularity, yet minimal research has examined implicit attitudes or the relationship between implicit and explicit attitudes toward tattooed individuals. Seventy-seven online participants (Mage = 36.09, 52% women, 78% white, 26% tattooed) completed measures assessing implicit and explicit attitudes toward tattooed individuals. Results revealed evidence of negative implicit attitudes, which were associated with less perceived warmth, competence, and negative explicit evaluations. However, implicit attitudes were not correlated with measures of disgust or social distance. In addition, age predicted implicit prejudice, but other individual difference measures—such as personal tattoo possession, political identity, and internal/external motivations to respond without prejudice—did not. These findings are discussed in terms of how attitudes toward tattooed individuals may be multifaceted, and research may benefit from measuring implicit and explicit attitudes.     

序列学习中的内隐学习效应

该研究采用较为复杂的包含图形出现的位置规则和顺序规则的实验材料,通过对比被试直接测验和间接测验、内隐学习和外显学习成绩的异同,考察了序列学习中的内隐学习效应,并探讨了规则特点对内隐学习效应的影响。结果表明,在图形位置的序列学习中存在内隐学习效应,内隐学习效应的大小受规则特点的影响。     

Autonomic and behavioral evidence of "implicit" memory in amnesia

A profoundly amnesic patient with a left retrosplenial-fornix lesion was tested on a recognition task that evaluated both verbal and electrodermal aspects of new learning. In addition, "implicit memory" tasks (mirror reading and perceptual identification) were given. The patient displayed strong evidence of learning on all tasks although the results of this learning were not represented in explicit recall or recognition. These findings suggest that autonomic as well as behavioral evidence can index spared memory functions in amnesia. The specific meaning of electrodermal recognition and its possible place in the distinction between implicit and explicit memory is discussed.