工作嵌入的概念、测量及相关变量

工作嵌入代表个体与工作的嵌入程度,用于解释个体为什么留在组织中的一系列因素,具有非情感性、多维度的特点。工作嵌入明显区别于工作满意度、组织承诺等组织行为学变量,包括匹配、联结以及牺牲三个维度。该文明确了工作嵌入与相关变量的概念区别,重点介绍了工作嵌入测量方法的发展以及其在组织行为领域中的研究成果,并指出了今后有必要对其影响因素、测量工具、维度以及结果变量拓展等四个方面进行探讨     

工作嵌入的影响结果及其理论解释

近年来, 工作嵌入(Job embeddedness)作为解释员工离职和留职的新视角, 逐渐受到理论界与实务界的广泛关注和探讨。根据内容分析法(Content analysis), 系统梳理了国内外176篇工作嵌入相关文献, 分别从研究视角、内容分析和发展方向三个方面评述工作嵌入的影响结果。基于此, 总结出6种理论视角：资源保存理论、社会资本理论、计划行为理论、工作-角色依附理论、未来时间透视视角和传染过程视角。以内容分析的方式呈现关于工作嵌入研究的发展趋势和不同视角下工作嵌入影响结果的具体研究情况。未来研究应进一步构建团队工作嵌入理论模型、聚焦跨文化比较下工作嵌入的溢出效应、关注工作嵌入的双刃剑效应以及突出子维度差异化作用。     

专业社会工作在学校现有学生工作体制内的嵌入

在不同的国家及教育体制之下,学校的学生服务机制是有差异的.在我国的中小学校,目前实施的是产生于20世纪50年代,并随着中国社会的改革和发展不断调整完善的以思想政治教育为核心的学生工作机制,它由德育教育、心理教育、法制教育、班主任班级管理、共青团或少先队组织及后勤保障服务等六大系统构成.形成了中国特有的学校学生服务机制,为学校专业社会工作的发展积累了很多宝贵的经验,但是,这套学生工作模式在实践的过程中存在许多问题,并没有达到理想的工作效果,从社会工作的角度分析,它与学校社会工作存在着很多的差异:表现在教育理念与服务理念的差异、学校任务为本与学生需要为本的差异、工作的问题视角与优势取向的差异、服务的控制管束与授权增能的差异、工作者的独立作战与团队合作的差异、更多关注意识形态与重视人的全面发展的差异.因此,非常有必要在现有的学校学生工作体系中注入社会工作的专业元素.以四川抗震希望学校社会工作实践经验为例,提出在现有学校服务体系中嵌入社会工作的战略及策略:建立学校社会工作制度,在学校设立社会工作岗位,组建学校社会工作科际团队,明确学校社会工作者的角色与职责；责成学校社会工作者组织全员培训与团队培训,向学校教职员工传达社会工作的专业助人理念、功能及助人方法,帮助学校人员了解、接纳认同社会工作.对合作团队的成员进行参与式的系列培训,培养本土社工.     

农民工的工作退缩行为：基于多重嵌入和身份压力的视角

2.9亿农民工的工作退缩行为——为减少工作和组织角色而有意采取的行为(回避工作和降低努力、迟到缺勤、离职等)影响重大。为此, 本研究以资源保存理论作为“伞”理论, 整合了多重嵌入和身份压力的视角, 构建了一个全面预测农民工的工作退缩行为的模型。在该模型中, 提出了同时包含隐性和显性的工作退缩行为的测量指标体系; 构建了农民工在城市和家乡的多重嵌入对不同工作退缩行为的预测关系, 以及“农村人”和“城市人”的双重身份压力经由农民工在城市的多重嵌入对工作退缩行为的间接预测效应。本研究基于农民工样本的特异性, 构建了一个“背景化”的全面预测工作退缩行为的理论模型, 不仅弥补了微观层面农民工研究的理论空白, 也丰富了身份、多重嵌入和工作退缩行为领域的理论和文献。     

个人与组织价值观匹配对员工工作投入、组织支持感的影响

采用问卷调查法,考察个人与组织价值观匹配和员工的工作满意度、工作投入、组织支持感以及离职意向之间的关系。对33家生产型企业798名员工进行了问卷调查,通过对数据的统计分析,结果表明：个人与组织价值观匹配对员工的工作满意度、工作投入和组织支持感具有显著的正向预测作用,对员工的离职意向具有显著的负向预测作用。     

嵌入灵魂深处的弹头

帕西警官破获过很多棘手案子，这次，又一个黑社会团伙栽倒在他手上。 没想到提审一个绰号叫“毒蝎”的嫌犯时，这家伙气焰十分嚣张，用挑衅的口气说：“帕西警官，你对我最好客气点儿……因为只有我知道你这个所谓警界铁腕人物的虚伪和无耻。”     

企业员工工作伦理、工作满意度和离职意向的关系

目的:考察工作伦理与工作满意度、离职意向的关系。方法:对252名企业员工进行工作伦理问卷调查,并建立结构方程模型考察工作伦理、工作满意度与离职意向的关系。结果:员工的工作伦理能显著预测离职意向(反向),工作满意在工作伦理对离职意向的影响中起着完全中介的作用。结论:企业在招聘员工的过程中要重视员工的工作伦理。     

中学教师工作满意感的结构及其与离职倾向、工作积极性的关系

本研究通过对230名中学教师进行问卷调查,分析中学教师工作满意感的因素组成结构和工作满意感状况,并探讨教师工作满意感对教师离职倾向和工作积极性的影响.结果表明:(1)中学教师工作满意感的结构包含10个组成因素,该因素结构与Locke(1976)等人提出的模型高度一致;(2)中学教师对工作总体和教育体制、学生素质、领导与管理、工作成就、工作条件、工资福利待遇、工作压力等工作因素均感不满意;(3)教师总体的工作满意感及对教育体制、收入与福利、领导与管理、教师社会地位及工作环境条件等方面的满意水平与教师的工作卷入、留任都有密切的关联,外部奖励也可激励教师工作动机.     

嵌入于社会情境的工作重塑

工作重塑实质上是一种情境性的主动性行为。基于已有研究成果,首先系统归纳工作重塑与社会情境因素之间关系的4种研究视角,即社会情境是工作重塑的目标、社会情境因素是工作重塑的组成部分、社会情境因素影响工作重塑、社会情境因素为工作重塑设立边界条件。此外,梳理并讨论社会情境因素影响工作重塑的内在机制以及社会情境因素与个体特征的交互对于工作重塑的影响、工作重塑在特定情境中的有效性两方面的研究。在此基础上,结合其他相关变量的研究现状对嵌入于社会情境的工作重塑的未来研究进行展望,包括探索工作重塑对他人的影响、探索团队工作重塑驱动个体工作重塑的多重路径、探索社会情境影响工作重塑的内在机制、探索社会情境与个体特征的交互如何影响工作重塑,以及探讨基于中国社会情境的工作重塑的有效性。     

家族企业雇员工作满意度对离职意愿和工作绩效的影响:关系身份的调节

本文根据雇员的"关系身份"特征,把家族企业的雇员分为家族内部员工和家族以外员工,然后通过对118个家族企业的3621个雇员的调查问卷的分析,论证了我国家族企业雇员的工作满意度对离职意愿和工作绩效的影响。我们的研究发现,工作满意度对离职意愿的影响在家族内部员工身上体现得并不明显,而在家族以外员工中却表现得非常明显。同样,工作满意度对工作绩效的影响在家族内部员工中表现得并不显著,而在家族以外员工中表现得非常显著。在这些关系中,"关系身份"有着调节效应。     

Job Embeddedness in a Culturally Diverse Environment

The demographic composition of the workforce is changing, with an increase in the participation of minorities. Numerous studies center their attention on the inclusion of minorities, but variation in turnover of a culturally diverse workforce has not received much attention. Forecasts indicate that by 2020 Hispanic presence will increase 60% nationwide. Given these trends, it is critical that management scholars examine the impact of Hispanic cultural factors on important organizational outcomes such as voluntary turnover. This paper assesses whether there are significant differences between Hispanics and Caucasians with respect to job embeddedness and voluntary turnover. The findings suggest that job embeddedness is a robust predictor of employee retention across diverse populations. Portions of this research were submitted by Carlos M. Mallol in partial fulfillment of requirements for his doctoral degree. A preliminary version of this article was presented at the 2003 Academy of International Business Conference.     

Job search as goal-directed behavior: Objectives and methods

This study investigated the relationship between job search objectives (finding a new job/turnover, staying aware of job alternatives, developing a professional network, and obtaining leverage against an employer) and job search methods (looking at job ads, visiting job sites, networking, contacting employment agencies, contacting employers, and submitting applications). In a sample of 205 employed individuals from Belgium and Romania, job search objectives were significantly related to job search methods even after job satisfaction was controlled. Furthermore, particular objectives predicted specific methods. While the finding a new job/turnover objective predicted all search methods, staying aware of alternatives predicted using job ads and sites; the network objective predicted networking and contacting employers; and the leverage objective predicted contacting employers. Results suggest that search objectives are important for understanding job seekers’ search behavior and support the view that job search is a self-regulatory process that begins with objectives which activate search behavior.     

The Effect of Work/Family Conflict on Intention to Quit: The Mediating Roles of Job and Life Satisfaction

Research has shown consistently that job satisfaction predicts turnover, but much less attention has been given to the how relationships between work and nonwork or how overall subjective evaluations of life (i.e., life satisfaction) affects turnover. We tested a model that included job satisfaction, life satisfaction, and conflict between work and nonwork domains of life as predictors of intent to quit. Results from a sample of Air Force personnel revealed that life satisfaction was a significant predictor of intent to quit after controlling for job satisfaction, and that both job and life satisfaction mediated the effects of role conflict between work and nonwork on intent to quit. We consider implications of these findings for both theory and practice. Portions of this paper were presented at the 9th Bi-Annual Conference of the International Society for the Study of Work and Organizational Values (ISSWOV). The views expressed in this paper are those of the authors and do not reflect the official policy or position of the United States Air Force, Department of Defense, or the US Government.     

The Interaction of Job Satisfaction, Job Search, and Job Changes. An Empirical Investigation with German Panel Data

Using the rich data set of the German Socio-Economic Panel (GSOEP) this article analyzes the effects of job characteristics on job satisfaction as well as the conditions under which low job satisfaction leads to job search, and under which job search leads to job changes. Individual fixed effects are included into the analysis in order to hold unobserved heterogeneity constant. According to the empirical results, the strongest determinants of job satisfaction are relations with colleagues and supervisors, task diversity and job security. Furthermore, job satisfaction is an important determinant of the self-reported probability of job search, which in turn effectively predicts actual job changes. The effect of job search on the probability of changing jobs varies with job satisfaction and is strongest at low levels of job satisfaction. The effects of job dissatisfaction on job search and of job search on quits are stronger for workers with lower tenure, better educated workers, workers in the private sector and when the economy and labor market are in a good condition.     

Job demands and resources as antecedents of work engagement: A longitudinal study

By utilizing a 2-year longitudinal design, the present study investigated the experience of work engagement and its antecedents among Finnish health care personnel (n = 409). The data were collected by questionnaires in 2003 (Time 1) and in 2005 (Time 2). The study showed that work engagement—especially vigor and dedication—was relatively frequently experienced among the participants, and its average level did not change across the follow-up period. In addition, the experience of work engagement turned out to be reasonably stable during the 2-year period. Job resources predicted work engagement better than job demands. Job control and organization-based self-esteem proved to be the best lagged predictors of the three dimensions of work engagement. However, only the positive effect of job control on dedication remained statistically significant after controlling for the baseline level of work engagement (Time 1).     

The Validity of Job Knowledge Measures

The validity of written job knowledge tests as predictors of job performance and training success was examined. Based on a sample of 363,528 persons and 502 coefficients, meta-analyses were performed to investigate the extent of validity generalization and the effects of two hypothesized moderator variables: content similarity and job complexity. Corrected mean validities were 0.45 for studies predicting job performance and 0.47 for studies of training success. Support was found for both moderators since validities were higher for high complexity jobs and when job-test content similarity was high. The implications of this study for personnel selection and research in the area of work performance are discussed.     

Job crafting and job performance: A longitudinal study

In this three-wave study (N = 288), we examined whether job crafting intentions and work engagement led to actual job crafting behaviours and, in turn, to higher levels of prospective work engagement and job performance. We used the Job Demands-Resources model as a theoretical framework and defined job crafting as the self-initiated changes that employees make in their job demands and resources. One month after reporting their job crafting intentions, respondents rated their actual job crafting behaviours. Again one month later, they rated their levels of work engagement, in-role performance, and organizational citizenship behaviour towards individuals (OCBI). Results of structural equation modelling showed that job crafting intentions and work engagement significantly related to actual job crafting, which, in turn, related to higher levels of work engagement, while controlling for job characteristics. Results further showed that engaged employees performed better on their in-role tasks but did not perform more OCBIs. The findings suggest that employees can increase their own work engagement and job performance through job crafting.     

Job search self-efficacy: Reconceptualizing the construct and its measurement

Job search self-efficacy (JSSE) is one of the most studied variables in the job search literature and an important component of the theory of planned behavior and self-regulation theory which have both been used to explain the job search process. However, even though JSSE has been a part of job search research for thirty years, the measurement of JSSE has varied from study to study. This questions both the validity of the measures used and the findings from each study that used a different measure. In this paper, we propose and test a two dimensional measure of JSSE that corresponds to job search behavior (JSSE-B) and job search outcomes (JSSE-O). The results of a longitudinal study of employed and unemployed job seekers support a two-factor model corresponding to the two dimensions of JSSE. We also found differential relationships between each dimension of JSSE and several antecedents and consequences. Among the antecedents, environmental exploration and self-exploration were stronger predictors of JSSE-B while career planning was a stronger predictor of JSSE-O. In terms of consequences, JSSE-B was a stronger predictor of job search intention and behavior while JSSE-O was a stronger predictor of the number of job offers received. These findings provide support for two dimensions of JSSE and have important implications for job search research and practice.     

Is the past prologue for some more than others? The hobo syndrome and job complexity

The current study examines the relationship between an individual's history of changing jobs and future turnover (the so-called “hobo syndrome”). Relying on self-consistency theory, it was hypothesized that the relationship between job mobility history and turnover is moderated by job complexity. Using a sample of 393 employees from two healthcare organizations, multiple methods were used to assess the variables of interest. Job mobility history was assessed with a biodata questionnaire collected before employees were hired. Job complexity was measured objectively by a job complexity index calculated from O*NET data. Turnover was assessed with actual turnover data collected over an 18-month post-hire period. Consistent with our hypothesis, results using event history analyses revealed that previous job changes were positively related to turnover likelihood. Additionally, job complexity moderated the relationship between previous job changes and turnover likelihood, such that previous job changes were more positively related to turnover in complex jobs. Implications for future research and practice are discussed.