Peer review and innovation

Two important aspects of the relationship between peer review and innovation includes the acceptance of articles for publication in journals and the assessment of applications for grants for the funding of research work. While there are well-known examples of the rejection by journals of first choice of many papers that have radically changed the way we think about the world outside ourselves, such papers do get published eventually, however tortuous the process required. With grant applications the situation differs in that the refusal of a grant necessarily curtails the possible research that may be attempted. Here there are many reasons for conservatism and reservation as to the ability of a grant allocation process based on peer review to deliver truly innovative investigations. Other methods are needed; although such methods need not be applied across the board, they should constitute the methods whereby some 10–20% of the grant monies are assigned. The nomination of prizes for specific accomplishments is one way of achieving innovation although this presumes that investigators or institution already have available the money necessary to effect the innovations; otherwise it is a question of the selection and funding of particular individuals or institutions and requiring them to solve particular problems that are set in the broadest of terms.     

A Discussion on Governmental Research Grants

Governmental research grants are financially supported by taxpayers to meet financial requirements of research, particularly research that is unlikely to be supported by private funds. Researchers reward donors by producing knowledge. Publishing research results in an academic journal reflects achievement by researchers; however, receiving a grant award does not. The latter only provides the researcher with the capacity to perform his/her research. Applicants may receive more financial support than they actually need because there is no strict audit on the amount of money requested by each research proposal. There are fewer opportunities to apply for a governmental grant than there are for publishing an academic article, and the application process for governmental grants is not flexible. Some potentially innovative research may be impeded by the intense competition among scientific researchers applying for financial support. Researchers face stiffer competition at this stage than at the stage of publishing results. This paper suggests that scientific foundations can improve their efficiency by giving funding preference to economic proposals. Methods for estimating the efficiency of grants are proposed. The practice followed by the Small Grants for Exploratory Research programme of the National Science Foundation validates my analysis and recommendations.     

AGING RESEARCH IN HIGHER EDUCATION: RESEARCH IN READING PROCESSES OF THE ELDERLY (PROBLEMS AND PROMISE)

Abstract

This article considers an assortment of issues regarding research into reading problems of the elderly. It is based on research results that grew out of a two‐year federal grant from the National Institute of Aging. The discussion includes an examination of demands placed on senior citizens’ reading skills by materials disseminated through agencies at the federal, state, and local levels.     

Improving the peer-review process for grant applications: reliability, validity, bias, and generalizability

Peer review is a gatekeeper, the final arbiter of what is valued in academia, but it has been criticized in relation to traditional psychological research criteria of reliability, validity, generalizability, and potential biases. Despite a considerable literature, there is surprisingly little sound peer-review research examining these criteria or strategies for improving the process. This article summarizes the authors' research program with the Australian Research Council, which receives thousands of grant proposals from the social science, humanities, and science disciplines and reviews by assessors from all over the world. Using multilevel cross-classified models, the authors critically evaluated peer reviews of grant applications and potential biases associated with applicants, assessors, and their interaction (e.g., age, gender, university, academic rank, research team composition, nationality, experience). Peer reviews lacked reliability, but the only major systematic bias found involved the inflated, unreliable, and invalid ratings of assessors nominated by the applicants themselves. The authors propose a new approach, the reader system, which they evaluated with psychology and education grant proposals and found to be substantially more reliable and strategically advantageous than traditional peer reviews of grant applications.     

Relational and imageric recall in young and older adults under conditions of high task demand

Research indicates the presence of an age-related pictorial processing deficit, for which the elderly may attempt to compensate through the use of relational information. Cognitive asynchrony theory, a recent synthetic formulation which unites elements of the generalized slowing hypothesis, environmental support theory, and the item-specific/relational information distinction, has proven useful in a number of experiments in explaining these aspects of visual cognitive aging. The present experiments tested this theoretical formulation under high processing demand conditions in both the relational and the pictorial/item-specific realm. Young and older adults yielded a complex pattern of results consistent with the cognitive asynchrony synthesis of these theoretical considerations. The present experiments add to the growing body of findings indicating that the cognitive subsystems of memory decline at different rates, that the differences in cognitive processing between young and older adults tend to be more quantitative than qualitative, and that the global age-related memory deficits of popular belief are in fact relatively circumscribed and specific. This research was supported by grant AG11605 from the National Institute on Aging, and by a grant from the College of Science and Mathematics, California State University.     

Relational and imageric recall in young and older adults under conditions of high task demand

Research indicates the presence of an age-related pictorial processing deficit, for which the elderly may attempt to compensate through the use of relational information. Cognitive asynchrony theory, a recent synthetic formulation which unites elements of the generalized slowing hypothesis, environmental support theory, and the item-specific/relational information distinction, has proven useful in a number of experiments in explaining these aspects of visual cognitive aging. The present experiments tested this theoretical formulation under high processing demand conditions in both the relational and the pictorial/item-specific realm. Young and older adults yielded a complex pattern of results consistent with the cognitive asynchrony synthesis of these theoretical considerations. The present experiments add to the growing body of findings indicating that the cognitive subsystems of memory decline at different rates, that the differences in cognitive processing between young and older adults tend to be more quantitative than qualitative, and that the global age-related memory deficits of popular belief are in fact relatively circumscribed and specific. This research was supported by grant AG11605 from the National Institute on Aging, and by a grant from the College of Science and Mathematics, California State University.     

Tolerant (In)civility? A Longitudinal Analysis of White Conservative Protestants’ Willingness to Grant Civil Liberties

Past research has found conservative Protestants to be less willing than most Americans to grant civil liberties to unpopular groups. In light of evidence of high and growing civility by Smith (2000) and Hunter (1984), there is good reason to believe that conservative Protestants are becoming less distinctive with regard to granting civil freedoms. We update and expand previous research on conservative Protestants and civil liberties by examining the civil liberties measures in the General Social Survey over a 26-year period, with special attention to explaining conservative Protestantism's rejection of civil liberties. In comparison to mainline Protestants and Catholics, we find that conservative Protestants are still less willing to grant civil liberties to unpopular groups, though important qualifications apply. Various explanations are examined.     

Markov processes in learning theory

Consideration is given mathematical problems arising in two learning theories—one developed by Bush and Mosteller, the other developed by Estes. The theory of Bush and Mosteller leads to a class of Markov processes which have been studied in considerable detail (see [1] and [7]). The Estes model can be treated as a Markov chain, i.e., a Markov process with a finite number of states. For an important class of special cases, it is shown that the Bush-Mosteller model is, in a sense, a limiting form of the Estes model. The limiting probability distributions are derived for the cases treated in both models.This research was supported by the National Science Foundation through a grant given to the Dartmouth Mathematics Project.     

On a metric,unidimensional unfolding model for attitudinal and developmental data

If stimulus responses are linearly related to squared distances between stimulus scale values and person scores along a latent continuum, (a) the stimulus × stimulus correlation matrix will display a simplex-like pattern, (b) the signs of first-order partial correlations can be specified in an empirically testable manner, and (c) the variables will have a semicircular, two-factor structure. Along the semicircle, variables will be ordered by their positions on the latent dimension. The above results suggest procedures for examining the appropriateness of the model and procedures for ordering the stimuli. Applications to developmental and attitudinal data are discussed. This research was supported by a grant from the Graduate School of the University of Minnesota to the author and by a grant from the U. S. Public Health Service (Grant No. 1-R01-MH27861-01) to Dr. James Rest, Principal Investigator.     

On qualitative axiomatizations for probability theory

In the literature, there are many axiomatizations of qualitative probability. They all suffer certain defects: either they are too nonspecific and allow nonunique quantitative interpretations or are overspecific and rule out cases with unique quantitative interpretations. In this paper, it is whown that the class of qualitative probability structures with nonunique quantitative interpretations is not first order axiomatizable and that the class of qualitative probability structures with a unique quantitative interpretation is not a finite, first order extension of the theory of qualitative probability. The idea behind the method of proof is quite general and can be used in other measurement situations.This research was partially supported by the national Science Foundation grant NSF BNS7702911 and by the joint NSF-NIE grant NSF SED 78-22271 to the University of California, Irvine.     

Test reliability and practice effects

The purpose of this paper is to develop mathematical formulations of test reliability when the estimation of reliability requires successive observations and these observations are not independent of the process (or act) of measurement. The specific application of concern arises in performance testing where performance varies as a function of practice and where practice accrues as a result of measurement. Repeated measures are experimentally nonindependent in such cases. Formulations for the estimation of reliability are developed for each of two cases. The first of these assumes a linear model for acquisition; the second assumes a nonlinear (quadratic) model. Illustrative data are presented whereby insights may be gained as to the inadequacy of the models.This investigation was supported by research grant (G14437) from National Science Foundation to Oregon Research Institute.The analysis of much of the data referred to in this report was made possible through the facilities of the Western Data Processing Center at the University of California, Los Angeles.     

The impact of implicit prejudice about the elderly on the reaction to stereotype confirmation and disconfirmation

Previous research demonstrated that perceivers explicitly condemn ingroup members who use racial stereotypes but that they are implicitly more likely to favor those ingroup members rather than ingroup members who do not use racial stereotypes (Castelli et al., 2001). The present study has two main goals. First, we want to investigate whether the same effects can be detected in the domain of ageism. In particular, we predicted that young adults would implicitly but not explicitly favor a young male who describes an old man in a stereotype-consistent way rather than in a stereotypeinconsistent way. Most importantly, we hypothesized that this tendency is related to participants’ prejudice level as assessed through an implicit measure (IAT, Greenwald et al., 1998), so that high prejudice individuals will implicitly favor stereotypere and derogate ingroup members who use stereotype-inconsistent information. Results provide general support for the hypotheses, and their implications for stereotype maintenance and change are discussed. Preparation of this paper was supported by a research grant from the University of Padova to the first author (CPDG018859).     

The impact of implicit prejudice about the elderly on the reaction to stereotype confirmation and disconfirmation

Previous research demonstrated that perceivers explicitly condemn ingroup members who use racial stereotypes but that they are implicitly more likely to favor those ingroup members rather than ingroup members who do not use racial stereotypes (Castelli et al., 2001). The present study has two main goals. First, we want to investigate whether the same effects can be detected in the domain of ageism. In particular, we predicted that young adults would implicitly but not explicitly favor a young male who describes an old man in a stereotype-consistent way rather than in a stereotypeinconsistent way. Most importantly, we hypothesized that this tendency is related to participants’ prejudice level as assessed through an implicit measure (IAT, Greenwald et al., 1998), so that high prejudice individuals will implicitly favor stereotypere and derogate ingroup members who use stereotype-inconsistent information. Results provide general support for the hypotheses, and their implications for stereotype maintenance and change are discussed. Preparation of this paper was supported by a research grant from the University of Padova to the first author (CPDG018859).     

Alternative approaches to factorial invariance

Special cases of the factor analysis model are developed for four selection situations. Methods are suggested whereby parameters in each case can be estimated using a maximum likelihood procedure recently developed by Jöreskog. Also, a numerical illustration is presented for each case.This research was supported by a grant from the University Research Council, Vanderbilt University.     

Three steps towards robust regression

The three most commonly used statistics, the arithmetic mean, variance, and the product-moment correlation, are most unfortunate choices when data are not strictly Gaussian. A new measure of correlation and a measure of scale are proposed which are substantially more robust than their least squares counterparts. An illustration shows how increased robustness can be obtained through the use of equal regression weights without severe loss in accuracy. The paper also shows how incorporating knowledge about the theoretical structure of the regression coefficients into their estimation can aid substantially in increasing their robustness.Various aspects of the research reported here was supported by: NICH and HD grant 1 R01 HD08896-01 AFY to The University of Chicago, Howard Wainer, Principal Investigator; The Social Sciences Divisional Research Grants of the University of Chicago; NIH grant HD-04660 and contract NICHD-72-2735 to the Fels Research Institute, A. F. Roche, Principal Investigator.We wish to thank John W. Tukey for his initial help and continuing interest. The measure of correlation (r _t ) and the resistant measure of scale herein proposed stem directly from a suggestion by Professor Tukey. Additionally, we wish to acknowledge the help and useful suggestions of W. Kruskal, A. F. Roche, J. Kettenring, and R. Gnanadesikan.     

Interactive scaling with individual subjects

A metric multidimensional scaling (MDS) procedure based on computer-subject interaction is developed, and an experiment designed to validate the procedure is presented. The interactive MDS system allows generalization of current MDS systems in two directions: (a) very large numbers of stimuli may be scaled; and (b) the scaling is performed with individual subjects, facilitating the investigation of individual as well as group processes. The experiment provided positive support for the interactive MDS system. Specifically, (a) individual data are amenable to meaningful interpretation, and they provide a tentative basis for quantitative investigation; and (b) grouped data provide meaningful interpretive and quantitative results which are equivalent to results from standard paired-comparisons methods.This report was supported in part by a PHS research grant, No. M-10006, from the National Institute of Mental Health, in part by a Science Development grant, No. GU-2059, from the National Science Foundation, both granted to the Psychometric Laboratory at the University of North Carolina, and in part by a PHS research grant, No. MH-16474, from the National Institute of Mental Health, Public Health Service, granted to the second author. The major portion of this research was performed while the second author was the L. L. Thurstone Distinguished Fellow at the Psychometric Laboratory of the University of North Carolina while on leave from the University of Southern California. The authors are indebted to Amnon Rapoport and Thomas S. Wallsten for their critical evaluations of an earlier version of this report. While this paper was entirely a cooperative effort on the part of both authors, the first author was primarily responsible for the algorithms, and the second for developing the mathematical model.     

A bayesian estimation of factor score in confirmatory factor model with polytomous, censored or truncated data

The posterior analysis in estimating factor score in a confirmatory factor analysis model with polytomous, censored or truncated data is investigated in this paper. For the above three types of data, posterior distributions of the factor score are studied, and the estimators of the factor score are obtained to be the location parameters of the posterior distributions. The accuracy of Bayesian estimates is studied via simulation studies.This research was supported by a Hong Kong UGC grant.     

DRESSING TO IMPRESS: BELIEFS AND ATTITUDES REGARDING WORKPLACE ATTIRE

The purpose of this study was to examine individual differences in beliefs and attitudes regarding workplace attire including: the value placed on clothing, the impact of attire on workplace outcomes (e.g., promotions, raises), the effort and planning involved in dressing appropriately for work, how their clothing made them feel, and whether they used their attire to manage the impression of others in the workplace. Results from a sample of MBA students indicate that those who valued workplace attire used it to manage the impressions of others and believed that it positively impacts the way they feel about themselves and their workplace outcomes. Dressing to impress appeared to have particular utility for high self-monitors and those in management/executive positions. Women were found to be more interested in clothing and experienced more “appearance labor” when compared to men. Suggestions for future research are proposed.The authors wish to thank the University of Southern Indiana for its sponsorship of this research through a 2004 Faculty Research and Creative Work Award grant.     

Quality of life and affect in older persons: Hope, time frames, and training effects

This is a preliminary report of a project designed to increase hope and quality of life (QOL) in older persons through a series of five training sessions. The training sessions for the experimental groups are based on research on happiness, goal imagery, and time management. Data indicates that the training is effective in increasing expected QOL. Several measures of affect and stress are examined as a function of three time frames of self-reported QOL. Daily uplifts are significantly related to present and future QOL while measures of stress and major life changes are not. Correlations of affective measures with QOL tend to increase from time frames of the past five years through the present to the next five years, indicating the relevance of hope for older persons. Training for increased hope works with older persons. Data obtained in the process is used to address theoretical models of QOL in older persons. This project was supported by a grant from the American Association of Retired Persons Andrus Foundation.     

Lexical projection and the interaction of syntax and semantics in parsing

A series of self-paced reading studies utilized an embedded anomaly technique to investigate long-distance dependencies with dative verbs. Previous research i our lab demonstrated that argument structure influences the gap-filling process. Experiment I extended that work by demonstrating that dative verbs pattern with other complex transitive verbs (i.e., a fronted filler that is implausible as the direct object will not be interpreted as the direct object until the absence of a noun phrase after the verb forces the postulation of a direct object gap. This pattern contrasts with that of transitive verbs that subcategorize for a single internal argument position, where fronted fillers are obligatorily interpreted as the direct object). Experiments 2 and 3 investigate the prediction that semantic analyses precede syntactic analyses in dative questions. It is argued that the lexical information about argument structure and thematic roles can guide semantic interpretation.This research was supported in part by NSF grant BNS-8617738 and NIH grant HD-22271.