Memory in reading and listening to discourse

After reading or listening to short passages, Ss attempted to recognize semantically changed sentences and paraphrases (syntactically and lexically changed sentences). The intervals between the original presentation and test ranged from 1 to 23 sec. In general, paraphrases were poorly detected after a brief time, supporting earlier findings that the exact wording of sentences is not stored in long-term memory. An exception was the high recognition of active-passive changes with the visual presentation. Recognition at the first test interval was significantly better after listening than after reading, although the eventual level of recognition memory was not different in the two modes. This result, consistent with other studies of modality effects in short-term memory, suggests that acoustic-phonetic memory played a role in the storage of the auditorally presented material.     

Recognition hypermnesia: how to get it

Although recall hypermnesia (enhanced recall) over time with repeated testing has by now become an established empirical fact, its recognition counterpart, recognition hypermnesia, has defied clear-cut laboratory confirmation. In four studies, which relied on the retrieval component of recognition memory, it was shown that recognition memory, indexed by d', reliably improved over three successive recognition tests. The stimuli consisted of 140 cartoons, each comprising a picture and a verbal caption. Recognition memory was tested on transforms or part-forms (parts) of the original stimulus material (pictures only, verbal paraphrases of the pictures, the latent content of the cartoons, or the combination of paraphrases and latent contents). The strongest effects were obtained when the originally presented cartoons were tested on their latent (deep semantic) contents. Recognition hypermnesia for part-forms or transforms of earlier presented stimuli has potentially wide-ranging implications since real-world recognition--of faces, texts, visual scenes--usually involves recognising stimuli that are variants, not exact copies, of the originally encountered materials.     

Recognition hypermnesia: How to get it

Although recall hypermnesia (enhanced recall) over time with repeated testing has by now become an established empirical fact, its recognition counterpart, recognition hypermnesia, has defied clear-cut laboratory confirmation. In four studies, which relied on the retrieval component of recognition memory, it was shown that recognition memory, indexed by d′, reliably improved over three successive recognition tests. The stimuli consisted of 140 cartoons, each comprising a picture and a verbal caption. Recognition memory was tested on transforms or part-forms (parts) of the original stimulus material (pictures only, verbal paraphrases of the pictures, the latent content of the cartoons, or the combination of paraphrases and latent contents). The strongest effects were obtained when the originally presented cartoons were tested on their latent (deep semantic) contents. Recognition hypermnesia for part-forms or transforms of earlier presented stimuli has potentially wide-ranging implications since real-world recognition—of faces, texts, visual scenes—usually involves recognising stimuli that are variants, not exact copies, of the originally encountered materials.     

Recognition memoryfor pictorial events

Subjects viewed sequences of slides depicting everyday events, and in later recognition tests, they correctly rejected distractors that were inconsistent with some invariant of the event but falsely accepted consistent distractors. J. J. Jenkins has accounted for the differential recognition of consistent and inconsistent slides of pictorial sequences in terms of fusion, the abstraction of an event from a series of temporally related items. The conditions under which event fusion was likely to occur were manipulated in three experiments: degree of ordering of the action-sequence slides, semantic vs. nonsemantic orienting tasks during acquisition, and duration of retention interval Recognition performance was generally more accurate under conditions of semantic processing, ordered acquisition sequences (for the semantic task), and shorter retention intervals. However, these variables did not affect differential recognition of consistent vs. inconsistent slides. A further experiment showed that the absence of an effect of disordering acquisition sequences on differential recognition could not be attributed to subjects’ reordering the disordered sequences in a way consistent with the original event. The data did not support the hypothesis that recognition performance was based on fusion of events depicted by temporally ordered slide sequences. It was suggested that memory for featural detail is a relevant factor in performance.     

工作记忆对小学三年级学生解决比较问题的影响

研究工作记忆与小学生解决比较问题成绩之间的关系。实验1运用双任务作业研究一致问题和不一致问题的工作记忆负荷是否有显著差别,被试为34名小学三年级学生。实验2运用工作记忆测验研究成功解题者与不成功解题者的工作记忆容量是否有显著差别,被试为37名小学三年级学生。结果表明;(1)小学生解决比较问题的成绩受问题类型的影响,他们在一致问题上的成绩显著优于不一致问题。(2)一致问题和不一致问题的工作记忆负荷水平不同,不一致问题的工作记忆负荷大于一致问题。(3)成功解题者的工作记忆容量大于不成功解题者的工作记忆容量。本研究结果说明工作记忆对小学生解决比较问题有重要影响。     

Mental rotation of faces

The effect of orientation upon face recognition was explored in two experiments, which used a procedure adapted from the mental rotation literature. In the first experiment, a linear increase in the RT of same-different judgments was found as the second of a pair of sequentially presented faces was rotated away from the vertical. Also, it was found that the effect of changing facial expression did not interact with orientation. In the second experiment, a linear relationship between RT and orientation was found in a task involving the recognition of famous faces. This recognition task was found to be more affected by inversion than was an expression classification task. These results are interpreted as evidence against the view that inverted faces are processed in a qualitatively different manner from upright faces, and are also inconsistent with the hypothesis that inversion makes faces difficult to recognize because facial expression cannot be extracted from an inverted face.     

言语理解中的知觉符号表征与命题符号表征

采用移动窗口技术探讨言语理解中信息表征的方式。被试为华南师范大学本科生96名。实验材料按照探测图画中物体的形状跟先前阅读的句子中描述的物体的隐含形状的关系总体上分为两类,一类是匹配版本,一类是不匹配版本。采用相关样本t检验分别对两种条件下图画再认的反应时间和正确率进行统计分析。实验1中被试读完句子以后马上进行图画探测任务,结果表明这时被试头脑中进行的是知觉符号表征。实验2中被试的阅读任务难度增大,结果表明这时被试头脑中进行的是命题符号表征。实验3中被试阅读的关键信息进入长时记忆以后再进行图画探测任务,结果表明这时被试头脑中进行的也是命题符号表征。总的实验结果表明言语理解中既存在知觉符号表征,也存在命题符号表征,知觉符号表征是信息表征的一种早期状态,人类头脑中最终的信息表征形式主要是命题符号表征。     

客体投影方式对空间问题解决和再认的影响

通过设置四种实验条件,旨在阐明空间问题解决和再认的水平是如何受到客体不同投影方式的影响。除进一步支持了正投影问题的解决是以一个具有三维结构特性的心理表征为基础而并非是对二维正投影信息进行了充分识别的观点外,研究结果还表明：（１）这个具有客体三维结构特性的心理表征是建构于对正投影问题解决而非轴测投影图的再认过程中;（２）正投影问题解决的复杂性显著地高于轴测投影图问题解决而且一个建构于正投影问题解决中     

Transfer of responses to open and closed shapes in discrimination learning by cats

Two sets of 32 cats each were matched for performance in learning to discriminate an open and a closed shape and were then trained on a transfer task. The consistent groups were rewarded for choosing the same class of shape (open or closed) in learning and transfer. The inconsistent groups were rewarded for choosing the open figure in one task and the closed figure in the second, or vice versa. After learning the transfer task, all of the Ss relearned the original discrimination task under the same conditions that prevailed in initial training. The inconsistent groups made more errors on both the transfer and retention problems; both these differences were significant at the 0.1% level of confidence. These results and those obtained on preference tests support the hypothesis that cats classify shapes as open or closed in terms of perimeter and number of sides.     

Memory for impasses during problem solving

Three experiments were conducted to investigate the relative memorability of solved versus unsolved problems in long-term memory. In each experiment, subjects worked on a set of potentially solvable word problems, with the time spent on each problem held constant. Problem memorability was then measured with a free-recall task. In Experiment 1, in which a majority of problems were solved, unsolved problems were better remembered. In Experiments 2 and 3, we expanded on these results by manipulating problem difficulty and thus the ratio of solved to unsolved problems. When unsolved problems were as frequent as or more frequent than solved problems, no memory differences were found. Across all three experiments, the ratio of solved to unsolved problems was found to be a significant predictor of unsolved-problem memorability, but was not significantly related to the memorability of solved problems. The results illustrate that when impasses in problem solving are infrequent, they are more available in memory than are solved problems. It is speculated that this memory phenomenon may facilitate the recognition of opportunities to return to problems that have been terminated short of solution.     

Personality variables and problem‐construction activities: An exploratory investigation

Problem‐construction and problem‐finding activities have been shown to have a marked impact on creative achievement. Although cognitive operations play an important role in problem construction, there is reason to suspect that personality variables might influence effective process application. In the present study we constructed measures of personality characteristics that might influence adaption to novel, ill‐defined tasks. These measures were administered to 250 undergraduates who were also asked to complete a problem‐construction task. A series of discriminant analyses indicated that personality variables could be used to identify individuals who generated high‐quality, original problems. The implications of our findings for understanding exactly how personality variables interact with cognitive operations in the problem‐construction process are discussed.     

Effects of Image Preprocessing on Face Matching and Recognition in Human Observers

In person identification, recognition failure due to variations of illumination is common. In this study, we employed image‐processing techniques to tackle this problem. Participants performed recognition and matching tasks where the face stimuli were either original images or computer‐processed images in which shading was weakened via a number of image‐processing techniques. The results show that whereas recognition accuracy in a memory task was unaffected, some of the techniques significantly improved the identification performance in a face‐matching task. We conclude that relative to long‐term face memory, face matching is more susceptible to discrepancy of shading in different images of a face. Reducing the discrepancy by certain preprocessing techniques can facilitate person identification when original face images contain large illumination differences. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Procedural memory effects in categorization: Evidence for multiple systems or task complexity?

According to an influential multiple-systems model of category learning, an implicit procedural system governs the learning of information-integration category structures, whereas a rule-based system governs the learning of explicit rule-based categories. Support for this idea has come in part from demonstrations that motor interference, in the form of inconsistent mapping between response location and category labels, results in observed deficits, but only for learning information-integration category structures. In this article, we argue that this response location manipulation results in a potentially more cognitively complex task in which the feedback is difficult to interpret. In one experiment, we attempted to attenuate the cognitive complexity by providing more information in the feedback, and demonstrated that this eliminates the observed performance deficit for information-integration category structures. In a second experiment, we demonstrated similar interference of the inconsistent mapping manipulation in a rule-based category structure. We claim that task complexity, and not separate systems, might be the source of the original dissociation between performance on rule-based and information-integration tasks.     

论数学问题解决中情境模型与问题模型的关系

情境模型与问题模型是数学问题解决研究中的两个重要概念,前者是对问题所述情境的日常化的定性表征,后者是基于图式知识对问题关键变量的数量关系表征。本文介绍了两种模型的发展历史以及目前存在的争议,并提出了未来研究需要解决的问题。     

自闭症儿童对情景事件的情绪理解：基于内隐和外显的测量

该研究旨在采用生态效度更高的情绪情景事件以及内隐和外显两种测量方式考察自闭症儿童的情绪理解。选取自闭症和智商匹配的正常儿童各21名,以序列图片的方式呈现从动画片中截取的不同效价的情景事件,外显任务要求被试直接判断事件主角的情绪、内隐任务要求被试判断事件的一致性。结果发现：1.在外显任务中,自闭症儿童对正性和负性情绪的判断正确率均显著不如正常儿童,尤其是在负性情绪上存在明显的理解缺陷;2.在内隐任务中,正常儿童的正性负性情绪、自闭症儿童的正性情绪都表现出更弱的相对于中性情绪的理解效应;自闭症儿童的负性情绪理解则在两种任务中都接近于无。这些结果意味着自闭症儿童在外显和内隐任务中都存在负性情绪理解缺陷。     

Conceptual Combinations and Subsequent Creativity

Conceptual combination has been advocated as an important component of creativity, but relatively little research has investigated its importance. Two experiments were designed to extend previous research on the relationship between performance on conceptual combination tasks and subsequent performance on creativity tasks. Both experiments involved the generation of category exemplars and manipulated the type of conceptual combination experience and whether the items presented were related or unrelated to one another. In the first experiment, this was followed by a brainstorming task (divergent thinking) and in the second experiment by a creative problem solving task (convergent thinking). Contrary to expectations, the condition that required conceptual combinations did not enhance the generation of the number and originality of exemplars. As predicted, exposure to unrelated items led to more original products than related ones. The conceptual combination task with related items was predictive of performance on the creative problem solving task but not the divergent thinking task. Performance on the divergent task was related to the generation of exemplars for unrelated items. These results suggest that the conceptual combination task taps creative problem solving rather than divergent creativity.     

自闭症儿童对情景事件的情绪理解：基于内隐和外显的测量

该研究旨在采用生态效度更高的情绪情景事件以及内隐和外显两种测量方式考察自闭症儿童的情绪理解。选取自闭症和智商匹配的正常儿童各21名,以序列图片的方式呈现从动画片中截取的不同效价的情景事件,外显任务要求被试直接判断事件主角的情绪、内隐任务要求被试判断事件的一致性。结果发现：1.在外显任务中,自闭症儿童对正性和负性情绪的判断正确率均显著不如正常儿童,尤其是在负性情绪上存在明显的理解缺陷;2.在内隐任务中,正常儿童的正性负性情绪、自闭症儿童的正性情绪都表现出更弱的相对于中性情绪的理解效应;自闭症儿童的负性情绪理解则在两种任务中都接近于无。这些结果意味着自闭症儿童在外显和内隐任务中都存在负性情绪理解缺陷。     

The effects of a target–stimulus reminder on performance in a novel object recognition task

The effects of original training-stimulus pre-test reminders were examined in a novel object recognition (NOR) task. NOR is a task that examines memory for complex stimuli, and is driven by the rats’ tendency to spend significantly more time exploring novel objects over those previously experienced. In this task, a delay is imposed between a training experience during which the animal is allowed to investigate a set of identical objects, and a later test exposure where the animal encounters one of the original objects and a novel object with which it has had no previous experience. Experiment 1 demonstrated that performance at 24 h is significantly worse than at an immediate delay (1 min). In the second experiment, it was demonstrated that neither a 10-s nor a 30-s reminder treatment, in the absence of training, resulted in a level of preference for novelty, a measure of memory for the original object, that was significantly greater than chance. Experiment 3 illustrated significant performance effects of a 30-s training stimulus reminder administered 15 min prior to test with a 24-h retention interval. The final experiment illustrated that the additional 30-s of object exposure is effective in enhancing performance only if it occurs shortly prior to test. Animals receiving the additional 30-s immediately following training did not experience such beneficial effects. It was concluded, based upon these results, that pre-test training-stimulus reminders in this task produce effects similar to those seen in more traditional tasks of learning and memory.     

Binocular rivalry and semantic processing: out of sight, out of mind

Previous studies of binocular rivalry have shown that some aspects of a phenomenally suppressed stimulus remain available for visual analysis. The question remains, however, whether this analysis extends to the case of semantic information. This experiment examines that question using a semantic-priming paradigm in which prime words were briefly flashed to an eye during either dominance or suppression phases of binocular rivalry. Reaction times on a lexical-decision task were significantly shortened (the semantic-priming effect) only when prime words were presented to an eye during dominance; suppression acted to impair word recognition and to eliminate semantic priming. These results are inconsistent with certain cognitive models of binocular rivalry.