Parental Migration and Rural Left-Behind Children’s Mental Health in China: A Meta-Analysis Based on Mental Health Test

Parental migration has been an important predictor of left-behind children’s developmental outcomes. Based on the ecological model of rural left-behind children’s development, we systematically reviewed studies related to rural left-behind children’s mental health in China and investigated left-behind children’s mental health and its influencing factors. Thirty-two studies involving 28,629 participants met the inclusion criteria were included in our meta-analysis to compare mental health of left-behind children and non-left-behind children. Twenty-two studies involving 8,634 participants were included in gender difference meta-analysis. The results indicated that left-behind children report more mental health problems than non-left-behind children, left-behind girls were confronted with higher level of mental health problems than left-behind boys, left-behind children in primary school and junior high school reported more mental health problems than those in senior high school, and self-guardian children have more serious mental health problems than children guarded by grandparents, former generation, and single parent. Implications for future practice were analyzed from family, school, and government perspectives.     

Family-level factors of early childhood development: Evidence from rural China

Family-level factors that characterize the home environment are critical inputs to early language and cognitive development, and potential mechanisms for improving developmental outcomes in vulnerable populations. Many studies conducted in high-income and Western settings highlight stimulating parenting, the home language environment, and parental self-efficacy as possible mechanisms of early development, though less is known about how these family-level factors impact child development in low- or middle-income settings. Even less is known about these family-level factors and early childhood development in rural China, where rates of cognitive and language delay in children aged 0–3 years are as high as 45% and 46%, respectively. Using data collected from 77 rural households with children aged 18–24 months in Southwestern China, this study examines the associations between stimulating parenting, the home language environment, and parental self-efficacy, and early cognitive and language development. The results indicate that stimulating parenting was significantly associated with cognitive, language, and overall development; the home language environment was only significantly associated with language development; and parental self-efficacy was not significantly associated with any developmental outcomes. The implications of such findings reveal mechanisms for supporting healthy child development in rural China.     

Beyond Wealth and Health: The Social Environment as a Protective Factor for Cognitive Development of Children in Nicaragua

ABSTRACT

We examine the contributions of the environmental context on cognitive development in a representative sample of children (24–59 month-olds) in Nicaragua. Multivariate regression models revealed that children who experienced high levels of structure in the home, encountered more social interaction, and were enrolled in early education programs, exhibited higher cognitive skills. These factors were related to, but better accounted for, variability in children’s skills than the socio-economic endowment of the home or maternal education levels – the two most commonly used proxies to quantify children’s early contexts. Results from this study provide validation of the relation between children’s proximal early social environment and cognitive outcomes in a novel context. The results also provide motivation for deeper empirical investigation in the specific aspects of the home environment that may be central to providing resilience to low wealth populations, and to reducing inequality in developmental skills.     

The Impact of Perceived Discrimination on Mental Health Among Chinese Migrant and Left-Behind Children: A Meta-analysis

In China, rural–urban migration is one of major influences on the mental health of migrant and left-behind children. Literature suggests that the perception of discrimination is an important factor that influences the mental health of these children. The present research explores (1) whether migrant children and left-behind children are different in the relationship between the perception of discrimination and mental health, and (2) whether the relationship between the perception of discrimination and mental health of these children is moderated by gender and age. Using a meta-analytic technique, the authors included 26 studies (generating 48 independent samples) with a total sample size of 28,883 participants. Results showed that the perception of discrimination of migrant children was negatively correlated with positive indicators of mental health, and it has a stronger effect than left-behind children; the perception of discrimination of migrant children was positively correlated with negative indicators of mental health, and it has a weaker effect than left-behind children. Additionally, gender moderated the relationship between the perception of discrimination and the positive indicators of mental health among left-behind children, while age moderated such relationship among migrant children.

     

留守儿童生活压力与孤独感、幸福感的关系:心理资本的中介与调节作用

采用问卷法对971名农村儿童进行入户调查,以考察生活压力与留守/非留守儿童孤独感、幸福感的关系以及心理资本在此关系中的作用。结果显示:与非留守儿童相比,留守儿童的生活压力与孤独感较高,心理资本与幸福感较低;生活压力对留守/非留守儿童的孤独感有正向预测性、幸福感有负向预测性,心理资本对此起部分中介作用,且在两群体中的中介过程一致;心理资本仅能有效缓冲生活压力对留守儿童孤独感、幸福感的不利影响。     

Breastfeeding and offspring’s compassion and empathy in adulthood: A study with an over 30-year follow-up

This study investigated whether breastfeeding predicts offspring’s dispositional compassion and empathy from early adulthood to middle age. The parents of the participants (N = 1,394) of the Young Finns study answered questions about breastfeeding in 1983, and the participants’ compassion and empathy were evaluated in 1997‒2012 (participants were aged 20‒50 years). Breastfeeding did not predict the course of compassion or empathy in adulthood at the age of 20‒50 years. The associations remained non-significant, when adjusted for age, gender, socioeconomic factors, and a wide range of characteristics of the family environment (including mother’s gestational age; premature birth; birth weight; number of other children at home; parental mental disorder; parental relationship status; parental postnatal smoking; parental postnatal alcohol use; parenting behavior; and child’s externalizing behavior). In conclusion, breastfeeding seems not to predict offspring’s compassion or empathy in adulthood. The findings may present a hopeful perspective for children growing up with non-breastfeeding caregivers.     

母子依恋与农村儿童焦虑的关系：HPA轴活动的调节作用

本研究考察了母子依恋与农村留守、非留守儿童焦虑的关系以及儿童的HPA轴活动（唾液皮质醇日常节律）对这一关系的调节作用。39名留守儿童和70名非留守儿童完成了母子依恋问卷、儿童焦虑量表和连续三天共6次（上午、下午）的唾液采集。结果发现：（1）母子依恋安全性与留守儿童焦虑的负相关程度高于非留守儿童;（2）伴随皮质醇日常变化节律的提高,母子依恋安全性对留守儿童焦虑的保护作用增强,对非留守儿童焦虑的保护作用减弱。结果表明,HPA轴活动与母子依恋安全性的交互作用模式在农村留守与非留守儿童之间存在差异性。     

城镇化进程中农民工子女心理发展研究

农村留守儿童和城乡流动儿童的心理适应不仅关系着其自身的健康发展与素质提升,对整个社会的和谐与稳定也具有重要意义。自2004年以来,我们对农村留守儿童和城乡流动儿童心理发展的基本状况、发展环境、影响因素及其内部机制等问题进行了长期研究,本文将对我们多年来在该领域取得的研究成果进行梳理,主要阐述三个方面的问题:留守与流动,哪种处境对儿童的发展更有利;流动环境对儿童心理发展带来的压力与挑战,即流动儿童的城市适应状况及其影响机制;留守环境下儿童的心理适应状况,以及改善留守儿童情绪和行为适应问题的影响机制。最后,结合当前研究现状,提出了下一步研究的建议。     

Early Childhood Care Trends and Associations with Child Health Well-being in China: Evidence from the CHNS 1991 to 2011 Data

It has become increasingly common for young children to be taken care of by multiple caregivers in China after the socio-economic reforms. Complex migration patterns and high female labour force participation have led to children receiving care from various individuals in different contexts. However, little is known about how childcare arrangements are associated with child health well-being. This study examines various early childhood caregivers and their influences on children’s physical health in China. Using data from the China Health and Nutrition Survey (CHNS 1991–2011) with 3,470 children aged 2 to 6, we first identified different types of childcare arrangements in and outside of the household based on who provides the care, where they provide the care, and the intensity of the care. Then we examined the relationship between various childcare arrangements and health outcomes for children. Overall, household members undertook early childhood care tasks in China, with an increase in grandparents as primary caregivers between 1991 and 2011. The proportion of children receiving formal childcare fluctuated around 20% during this period. The findings suggest that: 1) primary caregiver in the household other than parents is not associated with undesirable physical health outcomes; 2) formal childcare outside the household is associated with higher height and lower BMI scores; 3) primary caregivers in the household, particular grandparents, moderate the association between childcare arrangements outside the household and children’s health outcomes. It yields an implication that early childhood care policies incorporating multiple caregivers would benefit children’s well-being in China.

     

留守儿童情绪和行为问题特征的潜在类别分析：基于个体为中心的研究视角

对2288个留守儿童样本用儿童长处与困难问卷（SDQ）进行施测,并对他们的情绪和行为问题特征进行探索性的潜在类别分析,发现留守儿童的情绪和行为问题存在明显的分组特征。统计指标支持了3个潜类别的模型,根据3个潜在类别在问卷各条目上的条件概率特征分别定义为：“适应困难组”,“行为冲动组”和“良好适应组”,3个潜在类别所占全体样本的比例分别为32%、41%和27%。进一步的分析发现：相比较良好适应组而言,适应困难组和行为冲动组有着显著的性别和年级水平效应,适应困难组和行为冲动组的男生所占比例更大;同时,这两个组的小学生所占的比例也更大。     

同伴友谊质量与留守儿童社会适应性的关系：有调节的中介模型

以生态系统理论为主要理论基础,对1440名农村留守儿童进行调查研究,建立农村留守儿童社会适应性的影响因素结构模型。研究发现,师生关系、友谊质量和自我意识直接影响社会适应性;亲子沟通、社会支持分别通过影响师生关系、友谊质量和自我意识而间接地影响社会适应性。应格外重视留守儿童的友谊质量及自我意识,同时加强亲子沟通,完善社会支持系统,形成学校、家庭、社会教育合力,切实提高农村留守儿童社会适应性。     

苔花盛开如牡丹？农村留守儿童负性生活事件与心理健康的关系

以1368名农村留守儿童为被试,通过问卷调查探讨农村留守儿童的负性生活事件与心理健康的关系,并检验心理韧性、同伴依恋的链式中介作用。结果发现：（1）农村留守儿童负性生活事件与其心理健康呈负相关关系,心理健康在性别、民族、年级和父母外出状况上差异显著;（2）农村留守儿童负性生活事件不仅能直接预测其心理健康,而且还通过同伴依恋、心理韧性发挥链式中介作用。     

苔花盛开如牡丹？农村留守儿童负性生活事件与心理健康的关系

以1368名农村留守儿童为被试,通过问卷调查探讨农村留守儿童的负性生活事件与心理健康的关系,并检验心理韧性、同伴依恋的链式中介作用。结果发现：（1）农村留守儿童负性生活事件与其心理健康呈负相关关系,心理健康在性别、民族、年级和父母外出状况上差异显著;（2）农村留守儿童负性生活事件不仅能直接预测其心理健康,而且还通过同伴依恋、心理韧性发挥链式中介作用。     

同伴拒绝、同伴接纳与农村留守儿童的心理适应：亲子亲合与逆境信念的作用*

以424名农村儿童为被试,基于留守儿童和非留守儿童之间的比较,在同伴关系的背景下探讨了亲子亲合与个体逆境信念对儿童攻击、学业违纪与孤独感的作用。结果表明：(1)同伴拒绝能显著增加儿童的攻击、学业违纪与孤独感,同伴接纳则显著降低儿童的学业违纪与孤独感,亲子亲合、积极的逆境信念能够显著降低儿童的孤独感;(2)亲子亲合对同伴拒绝与儿童攻击、学业违纪之间关系的调节效应在双亲外出儿童与非留守儿童群体中存在差异：高亲合条件下,同伴拒绝与非留守儿童的攻击、学业违纪之间存在显著关联,但是在双亲外出儿童中,这些关联不再显著;(3)亲子亲合能够调节同伴接纳与儿童孤独感之间的关系：在低亲合条件下,同伴接纳能够显著降低儿童的孤独感,但是二者在高亲合条件下不再存在关联。结果提示,农村留守儿童与父母间的紧密情感联结对于促进其心理适应具有保护作用,同伴接纳对儿童的亲情缺失具有补偿作用。     

Language First: Deaf Children from Deaf Families Spontaneously Anticipate False Beliefs

ABSTRACT

Being connected to other people at the level of inner and unobservable mental states is one of the most essential aspects of a meaningful life, including psychological well-being and successful cooperation. The foundation for this kind of connectedness is our theory of mind (ToM), that is the ability to understand our own and others’ inner experiences in terms of mental states such as beliefs and desires. But how do we develop this ability? Forty-six 17- to 107-months-old children completed a non-verbal eye-tracker false-belief task. There were 9 signing deaf children from deaf families and two comparison groups, that is 13 deaf children with cochlear implants and 24 typically developing hearing children. We show that typically developing hearing children and deaf children from deaf families, but not deaf children with cochlear implants, succeeded on a non-verbal eye-tracking ToM task. The findings suggest that the ability to recognize others’ mental states is supported by very early, continuous and fluent language-based communication with caregivers.     

Transmission of Educational Outcomes Across Three Generations: Evidence From Migrant Workers’ Children in China

The migration of parents or children may bring risks to children’s academic performance, but intergenerational effects on the academic performance of migrant workers’ children have been underexplored. This study aims to investigate how grandparents’ socioeconomic status (G1) and parents’ proximal and distal socioeconomic status (G2) influence the academic performance of migrant workers’ children (G3) and the corresponding impacts on the academic performance of migrant and left-behind children. The data used in this study were collected from a survey of 2017 migrant workers conducted in 13 districts and cities of 7 provinces of China in 2014. The results of ordered logistic regression models indicate that G1 grandparent socioeconomic status is positively associated with G2 academic performance and education level. Similarly, G2 parental academic performance and education level are positively linked to G3 academic performance. Parental distal academic performance and education level play an important role in G3 academic performance, but grandparents’ socioeconomic status is not significantly associated with G3 academic performance while controlling for both G1 and G2 variables. In addition, the influence of grandparents’ and parents’ socioeconomic status differs between migrant and left-behind children. Grandparent and parental occupation status only have a significant impact on left-behind children. The educational reproduction of migrant workers’ children has different logics among migrant and left-behind children. Further policies and social services are required to improve the development of migrant workers’ children.

     

The Influence of Socioeconomic Status, Home Environment, and Childcare on Child Language Abilities

The present study investigates the relationship between socioeconomic status, home environment, and amount of childcare on language of three-, four-, and five-year-old children. This study also develops a parental report measure of home environment. Results confirm the positive relationship between language and socioeconomic status. Findings on the positive relationship between language and home environment, as measured with the new Home Environment Questionnaire, are consistent with previous research using exhaustive observational and interview measures. Furthermore, results show hours per week of childcare are not related to language after controlling for socioeconomic status and home environment. This study confirms validity of the new Home Environment Questionnaire offering an alternative to measuring home environment which may suit a wider range of study circumstances. This new tool will allow researchers to better understand the positive and negative influences on children’s development.     

农村留守儿童人格特征、应对方式与心理适应性关系

目的: 考察留守儿童的心理适应性及其与人格特征和应对方式的关系。方法: 运用艾森克人格问卷 (儿童版)、简易应对方式问卷和心理适应性量表对332名农村留守儿童进行测查。结果:（1）留守儿童心理适应性总体发展具有显著的年级和安置方式差异而性别差异不显著。（2）留守儿童的人格特征可以直接影响其心理适应性;应对方式可以直接影响心理适应性中的个别因子,还可以通过人格特征间接的对心理适应性产生影响。结论：留守儿童的人格特征直接影响其心理适应性;应对方式主要通过人格特征间接的影响其心理适应性。     

中国留守儿童研究述评

留守儿童是指农村地区因父母双方或单方长期在外打工而被交由父母或长辈、他人来抚养、教育和管理的儿童。通过对留守儿童产生背景,概念界定,心理健康、自我意识、情绪与社会支持、社会行为、人格、学业与校园关系,家庭与生活等方面研究的系统总结,概括了已有研究中在多个学术领域宏观呈现与微观分析的“22N”模式及其存在的问题,提出了在目前干预措施实施不利的情况下,以保护性因素作为突破的新进展。最后从理论研究和实践干预方面提出：留守儿童并不一定是问题儿童,留守儿童之间存在个体差异,他们自身具有发展与成长的心理资源,而且留守儿童研究的纵深趋势与切实可行的干预模式必须是以社会的发展与需求为背景。     

Pilot test of a measure to assess clients’ perceptions of their home visitors

Home visiting services for caregivers of infants and young children have been found to be an effective method for promoting child development. Unfortunately, such services suffer from high rates of attrition, suggesting the need to identify factors related to client retention in services. Research has indicated that the client-provider relationship is an important predictor of client retention in home visiting services; however, measures to assess this relationship are limited. This study reports on a pilot test of the Client Perceptions of Home Visitors Questionnaire, developed to assess home visiting clients’ perceptions of their relationship with their home visitor. The measure was completed by 39 diverse home visiting clients during pregnancy in a midwestern town in the United States. The scale was found to have good internal consistency. Validity analyses found that the scale was positively associated with client satisfaction with services and perceived provider cultural sensitivity. The scale was also positively associated with retention in services at an 8-month follow-up. Additional research should examine the measure's psychometrics with larger samples.