宽宏大量与睚眦必报:宽恕和报复对愤怒的降低作用

本研究通过3个实验比较宽恕和报复对愤怒的降低作用。采用假设情景的方法,实验1通过在冒犯行为之后直接启动宽恕或报复,结果显示宽恕比报复对愤怒的降低作用更好,并且对消极情绪也具有降低作用;实验2考察在不同冒犯行为意图下宽恕与报复对愤怒的降低作用,结果显示不管是有意而为还是无心之过的冒犯行为,宽恕对愤怒的降低作用均要优于报复。实验3要求被试在冒犯行为后进行宽恕或报复,结果显示宽恕和报复对愤怒均有降低作用,但是宽恕的降低效果要显著优于报复。研究显示,对于冒犯行为后的愤怒感,宽恕的降低作用优于报复。     

Hope,Anger, and Depression as Mediators for Forgiveness and Social Behavior in Turkish Children

ABSTRACT. This study examined the mediating effects of hope, anger, and depression in the associations between forgiveness and social behavior, in fourth grade students in Turkey. The 352 fourth grade primary school students were involved in the study. The average age was 9.98 and 56.3% were boys. The Enright Forgiveness Inventory for Children (EFI-C), the Beck Anger Inventory for Youth (BANI-Y), the Children Hope Scale (CHS), the Social Behavior Questionnaire (SBQ), and the Children's Depression Inventory (CDI) were used. Results showed that depression mediates the relationship between anger and antisocial behavior and between hope and antisocial behavior. Anger mediates the relationship between hope and depression and between hope and antisocial behavior. Forgiveness was related to anger and hope directly. Implications of this study for child counseling were discussed.     

Mission and Reconciliation

Mission and reconciliation are intrinsically connected because of the inherent vocational objectives of the two in human life. Both are meant to lead to some tangible transformation in the human ecosystem that fosters collegiality and fraternity between and among humans regardless of humanly set boundaries of race, culture, religion, and social classification. Both doubtless come with the massive task of making the objectives experienced by people. Neither are one-off assignments, but require lifetime engagement because of human frailty and susceptibility to do harm whether consciously or unconsciously, particularly the dimension of mission that focuses on reconciliation. Bringing about reconciliation is cumbersome in nature because it involves multilayered analysis and multidimensional approaches. These enable the processes to be deep and broad to avoid a situation where the healing being gained relapses and the building blocks of wholeness collapse. Achieving reconciliation between the victim and the perpetrator or the oppressed and the oppressor is often the most difficult task. Reconciliation is not as easy as it is expressed in biblical narratives. Jesus Christ's mission was to reconcile the world and humanity with the Godhead, and this was accomplished on the cross. That sounds more like a one-off task for Christ, but it was brought about by the ultimate sacrifice. His dying on the cross reminds everyone involved in the mission of reconciliation that it comes with enormous sacrifice, which may lead to the supreme price in some cases. This article engages with different themes, including African concepts of building and sustaining reconciliation and the reconciled as life-giving mission.     

Behavioral methods of assessing forgiveness

One problem in forgiveness research is the reliance on one method (i.e. having people recall an offense and complete self-report measures). Thus, we present two strategies for studying forgiveness-related behavior. First, we adapted the Cyberball paradigm, which is a game of toss where two computer players (ostensibly virtual players) exclude the participant from play. We adapted Cyberball to include a second round that gave participants the opportunity to retaliate or forgive the player who excluded them. Self-reported forgiveness predicted the first toss and total number of tosses to the offender in the subsequent round. Second, we had participants describe an offense (as is typical with the recall method), but then also complete an activity in which they listed as many positive qualities as they could about the offender. Self-reported forgiveness predicted the number of positive qualities listed. We discuss the contribution of these studies to the multimodal study of forgiveness.     

Addressing Guilt within the Religious Community: Cyprian of Carthage,Reconciliation, and the Science of Emotion

This article looks at guilt, forgiveness, and “in-group” behavior using Cyprian of Carthage’s response to the third-century persecutions in dialogue with modern psychology and the science of guilt. Using Cyprian’s writings, we see the foundation of much of Christian behavior in regard to inclusion in a Christian community and the theology of penance. The broader issue of inclusivity and forgiveness connects to what evolutionary science presents on the issue regarding guilt and shame, and recent psychological work on achieving reconciliation and forgiveness between persons or in a community. By placing the Christian tradition into dialogue with these modern scientific studies, we find that a fruitful dialogue is possible which enriches both the religious and scientific communities.     

Interventions for Children with Anger Problems

Anger in children has received a lot of attention. This article is a review of several rational-emotive behavioral interventions for children struggling with anger problems. The first step discussed in this article involves helping children learn to recognize their internal signals that they are becoming angry. Children can be taught that there are certain physiological events that occur immediately preceding anger. Another important component of anger management involves the use of distraction, in which children are encouraged to substitute a happy or funny mental image to interrupt the anger producing thoughts. Finally, a detailed analysis of rational-emotive imagery is provided for children needing more extensive interventions with their anger problems.     

Achieving Democratic Equality: Forgiveness, Reconciliation, and Reparations

This paper provides an account of reparationsin general and then presents briefly oneexplanation of why many present day AfricanAmericans believe they are entitled toreparations from the U.S. Government.This explanation should not be seen as a finaljustification, but only as an indication whythe demand for reparations for AfricanAmericans might be seen a plausible. Next, ifit is reasonable to assume that reparations toAfrican Americans are plausible, I then go onto explain why reparations might be necessaryto fill the breech that is perceived to existbetween many African Americans and theirgovernment. This explanation will involve anexamination of the relationship between threeconcepts: forgiveness, reconciliation, andreparations. Then I explore why an apology orreparations for slavery and Jim Crow might benecessary for reconciliation between manyAfrican Americans and their government.Finally, I examine the contention that thelegislative process can be used to obtain anapology or reparations from the government.     

Barriers to forgiveness

Society generally encourages individuals to forgive their transgressors because forgiveness can yield many psychological, physiological, and social benefits (Exline & Baumeister, 2000 ). Nevertheless, victims face barriers to forgiving others, and other people face obstacles that prevent them from encouraging victims to forgive. We aim to provide insight into the various barriers that deter forgiveness by examining the role of the various parties involved—victims, transgressors, and uninvolved third parties—in creating barriers to forgiveness. We contend that beliefs held by these various parties significantly reduce the likelihood that victims will forgive their transgressors. By identifying how these beliefs impede forgiveness, we can begin to understand more fully why convincing victims to forgive is often a challenge. In our discussion, we also suggest ways by which victims, transgressors, and third parties can overcome these barriers to forgiveness.     

Reflexive encounters with embodied resistance to relational forgiveness

Troubling relationships with our parents may raise unanswered questions and anxieties. Over time, our bodies harbor these sensations in ways that often may go unrecognized. In this autoethnographic account, I examine memories of my childhood and recent past to understand emotionally disturbing episodes tainting my relationship with my father. Interrogating my reflective habits, I probe meanings left undetected by my preconceived sense-making routines. At the same time, I notice and voice the embodied resistance I encounter when opening up and deconstructing intimate layers of deeply rooted pains associated with my father. In doing so, I demonstrate how reflective practices summon a dialogue between embodied emotions and re-engagements with past understandings. Such dialogue generates potential for reimagining relational meanings and apprehending possibilities for forgiveness.     

Forgiveness in Javanese collective culture: The relationship between rumination,harmonious value,decisional forgiveness and emotional forgiveness

Forgiveness in Javanese collective culture is examined by considering harmonious value (HV) a subjective value on maintaining social harmony and rumination. In Study 1, we conducted an exploratory sequential mixed‐method study to develop a scale measuring HV. In‐depth interviews with eight Javanese adolescents revealed three major domains of HV (Study 1a). In a second quantitative study (Study 1b), we developed items and assessed 347 Javanese adolescents in Yogyakarta, Indonesia. Principal component analysis and confirmatory factor analysis supported three factors: cooperation during conflict, forbearing and resolving conflict. After confirming that the translated scales had acceptable reliability, we conducted Study 2 with 424 Javanese adolescents from both urban and village settings. Using hierarchical multiple regression, we found that HV accounted for a variance in decisional forgiveness above and beyond rumination. In addition, decisional forgiveness also accounted for variance in emotional forgiveness above and beyond rumination. In fact, HV accounted for variance in emotional forgiveness above and beyond both rumination and decisional forgiveness together. This revealed the importance of valuing social harmony in this collectivistic culture. Moreover, decisional forgiveness was also important in predicting the Javanese collectivists’ emotional forgiveness.     

The conceptualisation of forgiveness among Turkish children and adolescents

This study examined (a) how Turkish children and adolescents define forgiveness, (b) the association between self‐reported forgiveness and the concepts participants hold and (c) the association between self‐reported forgiveness and age. Three hundred and sixty‐seven Turkish children in primary (N = 220) and secondary schools (N = 147) were involved in the study. Participants were asked to define forgiveness, and the study used the Enright Forgiveness Inventory for Children (EFI‐C). Participants' conceptions of forgiveness were categorised into four groups: conditional forgiveness, reconciliation, ignoring the hurtful event and affective reactions. Half of all the participants in the study were found to be in the conditional forgiveness category. Turkish children were found to be mostly in the category of conditional forgiveness, reconciliation and affective reactions compared with adolescents. Adolescents were mainly found to be in the ignoring the hurtful event category. The highest self‐reported forgiveness mean was in the affective reactions category. Participants were commonly offended by friends, siblings, teachers and fathers. No correlation was found between self‐reported forgiveness and age. The present results expand the literature of forgiveness by presenting evidence that Turkish children's and adolescents' understanding of forgiveness moderately relates to theoretical definitions.     

An emerging theory of apology

There is no consensus in the psychological literature regarding the operational definition of an apology, nor is there a comprehensive theory of apology. The object of this study was to use a hermeneutic phenomenological approach and grounded theory methodology to develop a theory of apology based on lay people's interpretation of apologetic responses. Data were methodically gathered by interviewing 23 people who had been wronged by an intimate partner. The analysis of the data suggests that there is not a single discrete definition of an apology, but that it is more appropriate to conceptualise apology as a process that consists of one or more of three components: affect, affirmation, and action. Each of these components has two categories; one that reflects a self‐focus on the part of the wrongdoer, and the other a self–other focus. What will be accepted as a good enough apology appears to depend on the severity of the consequences of the wrong, the level of responsibility attributed to the wrongdoer, and the perceived wrongfulness of the behaviour.     

A China–New Zealand comparison of forgiveness

The present study examined the practice of forgiveness among participants from China (N = 172) and New Zealand (N = 91). We tested a theoretical model describing the relationships between collectivism, individualism, and forgiveness. Participants from China were more collectivistic and less individualistic than were participants from New Zealand. Overall, participants from New Zealand were more forgiving than were participants from China. Collectivism was positively related to decisional forgiveness in Chinese participants. Decisional forgiveness independently predicted conciliatory behaviour among participants from China, but this was not the case for participants from New Zealand. Thus, the hypothesized model received qualified support.     

Intellectual humility and forgiveness of religious leaders

This article presents two studies that examined how perceptions of intellectual humility affect response to a transgression by a religious leader. In Study 1, participants (N = 105) rated the religious leader on intellectual humility regarding different religious beliefs and values, as well as general humility and forgiveness of the leader for a transgression. Perceived intellectual humility was positively associated with forgiveness, even when controlling for perceived general humility. In Study 2, we replicated the findings from Study 1 on an independent sample (N = 299). Also, the type of offense moderated the association between perceived intellectual humility and forgiveness. For participants, who reported an offense in the area of religious beliefs, values, or convictions, the association between perceived intellectual humility and forgiveness was stronger than for participants, who reported a different type of offense. We conclude by discussing limitations and areas for future research.     

Freedom and forgiveness

In the history of philosophy and political thought freedom has meant a number of different things. The author considers several of these meanings and their relevance to psychoanalytic theory. The general argument against freedom that has been mounted in the history of thought, and echoed by Freud, is the thesis of causal determinism; but it is urged here that this in itself is no threat to freedom in the sense of the word required for moral agency: a free choice is one that is caused to some extent by reasons and that is relatively unconstrained both by 'external' and 'internal' forces. Yet because agents are embedded in a causal nexus that includes both the physical world and other people, agency and freedom can be compromised in innumerable ways. Neither freedom nor agency is a condition which we absolutely have or lack, but a matter of degree. Psychoanalytic therapy works toward expanding the capacity for agency and diminishing the constraints of certain internal forces. In the sense defined here, objectivity is an attitude that accepts our embeddedness in the world. With objectivity may come both forgiveness and self-forgiveness, which in turn promote agency.     

宽恕的心理学研究现状及其不足

宽恕逐渐成为心理学研究的热门课题。当前对宽恕的理论研究集中在人际宽恕的理论构建和相关研究,主要是对宽恕的神经心理基础、发展模式以及人格与宽恕的关系的研究;多数应用研究注重于其临床价值,已经有很成熟的临床干预模式出现。但是宽恕的研究还存在一些问题,对宽恕的定义存在争议,导致对宽恕的研究片面;对于测量宽恕的研究远远不够成熟和完善。宽恕的研究有待于细化和拓展。     

A meta-analysis of intergroup forgiveness

In the past decade, interest has flourished in the empirical study of forgiveness in the wake of intergroup conflicts. In the current paper, we sought to empirically integrate the diverse predictors of intergroup forgiveness building on a tripartite model that incorporates affective, cognitive, and constraining features. Using a random effects approach, we meta-analyzed (N = 13,371; k = 43) correlates of intergroup forgiveness across diverse conflicts (e.g. 65% intrastate, 35% interstate) and populations (20 different nationalities; 60% female). We tested the effect of nine distinct predictors and investigated study characteristics as moderators of these effects (i.e. sex of victim and conflict type). Collective guilt [r = 0.49] and trust [r = 0.42] emerged as the strongest facilitators, whereas negative emotions [r = ?0.33] and in-group identity [r = ?0.32] emerged as the strongest barriers to intergroup forgiveness. We discuss practical applications of these findings.     

沉思与宽恕关系的性别差异

The authors investigated the associations between rumination and forgiveness in male and female respectively. One hundred and twenty-seven college students (88F and 39M) completed self-report measures of rumination and forgiveness. Results showed that there were no apparent gender differences in rumination and forgiveness; rumination was associated with forgiveness in women-but not in men.     

Profiles of wisdom among emerging adults: Associations with empathy,gratitude, and forgiveness

The objective of this cross-sectional study was to examine multidimensional profiles of wisdom among emerging adults. We expected individuals who displayed deeper perspective across multiple dimensions of wisdom to also report greatest adjustment in reports of empathy, gratitude, and forgiveness. Two hundred and sixty-three undergraduate students reported dispositional empathy, gratitude, and forgiveness. Participants also responded to situational vignettes concerning gratitude and forgiveness. Wisdom was measured by coding written advice to hypothetical dilemmas. Cluster analyses supported four wisdom profiles: ‘Procedure-Focused,’ emphasizing methods for addressing challenges; ‘Fact-Focused,’ accentuating factual knowledge; ‘Shallow Perspective,’ showing less perspective across all dimensions; and ‘Deep Perspective,’ showing greater perspective across all dimensions. Participants in the ‘Shallow Perspective’ profile reported less empathy than those in the ‘Deep Perspective’ and ‘Procedure-Focused’ profiles. There were no differences in gratitude and forgiveness across clusters. Results suggest that emerging adults who have more fully developed perspectives about life challenges show greater interpersonal strengths.     

愤怒的动机方向

动机是动物行为的基本推动力。愤怒作为一种特殊的负性情绪通常具有趋近动机的性质, 但在某些情境下却跟回避动机有关。对这些冲突的证据有两种解释, 其一认为愤怒的特异性成分可能与趋近动机有关, 而其非特异性成分与回避动机有关; 其二认为, 愤怒外投与趋近动机有关, 愤怒内投与回避动机有关。大量研究暗示了愤怒与趋近动机的关联具有优先性与一般性, 而愤怒与回避动机的关联则是有条件的, 受情境制约的。将来需要进一步探索愤怒与趋近动机的进化和认知神经机制, 并明确愤怒与回避动机相关联的情境特征。