Gestalt and feature-intensive processing: Toward a unified model of human information processing

“Cognitive asynchrony theory,” recently developed in research on aging and memory, implies a functional distinction between the processing of “feature-intensive” items, those with numerous identifiable features, and the processing of images which are relatively sparse in such features and are handled in a more wholistic, “gestalt” manner. The present experiments addressed the question of whether such a distinction exists outside the realms of memory in which it has thus far been addressed. The present work used mental rotation as a model system. Consistent with the predictions of this model, Experiment 1 showed that feature-intensive figures required significantly more time to rotate than did gestalt figures, even though angles of rotation were the same. Experiment 2 demonstrated that feature-intensive processing may involve verbally-accessible semantic systems to a greater degree than is the case with “gestalt” items. Experiment 3 identified significant practice effects of feature-intensive stimuli on the processing of gestalt stimuli, but not the reverse. The results of these experiments indicate that the “gestalt/feature-intensive” processing distinction extends to mental rotation as well as to memory. Implications for the nature of mental representation of verbal and visual materials are discussed.     

Cognition at risk: Gestalt/feature-intensive processing and cigarette smoking in college students

Although previous research has shown the importance of feature-intensive processing of relevant information in the staving off of addictive behaviors, the present study examined the possibility that a more global, gestalt rejection of cigarette smoking may be operating to reduce smoking behavior. The present study addressed this possibility through the use of a decision efficacy rating procedure, in which smoking and nonsmoking respondents were asked to determine whether an individual was justified in smoking in a variety of given situations. Nonsmokers tended to reject smoking under any circumstances, whereas smokers tended to entertain mitigating circumstances more favorably in justifying smoking, especially when smoking could be construed as providing some perceived positive gains in serious situations. Results are discussed in terms of the gestalt/feature-intensive processing theory of cognition, and in terms of the importance of cognitive approaches to the understanding of addictive behaviors.     

Cognition at risk: Gestalt/feature-intensive processing and cigarette smoking in college students

Although previous research has shown the importance of feature-intensive processing of relevant information in the staving off of addictive behaviors, the present study examined the possibility that a more global, gestalt rejection of cigarette smoking may be operating to reduce smoking behavior. The present study addressed this possibility through the use of a decision efficacy rating procedure, in which smoking and nonsmoking respondents were asked to determine whether an individual was justified in smoking in a variety of given situations. Nonsmokers tended to reject smoking under any circumstances, whereas smokers tended to entertain mitigating circumstances more favorably in justifying smoking, especially when smoking could be construed as providing some perceived positive gains in serious situations. Results are discussed in terms of the gestalt/feature-intensive processing theory of cognition, and in terms of the importance of cognitive approaches to the understanding of addictive behaviors.     

Cognition at risk: Gestalt/feature-intensive processing,attention deficit,and substance abuse

Attention deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD) is associated with elevated levels of substance abuse, but the cognitive linkages involved have been little explored. The present study builds upon earlier work showing that more gestalt, as opposed to feature-intensive, styles of processing are conductive to substance abuse, especially in those with ADHD symptoms. The work reported here indicates that a protective factor against substance abuse may lie in relatively efficient heuristic processing, especially synthetic or inferential heuristic processing, but further demonstrates that those with ADHD symptoms tend to have poorer abilities in this regard, even at the subclinical, nondiagnosed level. Results are discussed in terms of the gestalt/featureintensive processing theory of cognition.     

Cognition at risk: Gestalt/feature-intensive processing, attention deficit, and substance abuse

Attention deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD) is associated with elevated levels of substance abuse, but the cognitive linkages involved have been little explored. The present study builds upon earlier work showing that more gestalt, as opposed to feature-intensive, styles of processing are conductive to substance abuse, especially in those with ADHD symptoms. The work reported here indicates that a protective factor against substance abuse may lie in relatively efficient heuristic processing, especially synthetic or inferential heuristic processing, but further demonstrates that those with ADHD symptoms tend to have poorer abilities in this regard, even at the subclinical, nondiagnosed level. Results are discussed in terms of the gestalt/featureintensive processing theory of cognition.     

Age-related change in visual information processing: Toward a unified theory of aging and visual memory

Memory for semantic information is relatively preserved through the normal aging process. Visuospatial memory remains less intact. In the present article a theory is proposed that links this processing difference to normal age-related generalized cognitive slowing, and to the appearance of specific age-related differences in memory performance. Evidence for these suggestions is presented from work in four areas: mental rotation, spatial memory, paired-associates learning, and free recall. Cognitive performance in young and older respondents is shown to vary predictably with systematic variation of visuospatial and semantic stimulus factors consistent with these hypotheses. A further test of these ideas derives from the development of a clinically useful mnemonic system for older adults that is based on these principles. Taken together, this research indicates that much of the deficit observed in the memory performance of older adults may derive not from memory problems per se, but rather from the action of generalized cognitive slowing, which contributes to diminished abilities to represent and process visual images. This series of findings may provide a framework for understanding a wide variety of the processes involved in aging and visual memory, and for the creation of applications to aid the memory of older adults.     

Toward a unified theory of human reasoning

This article presents a unified theory of human reasoning. The goal of the theory is to specify what constitutes reasoning, as opposed to other psychological processes, and to characterize the psychological distinction between inductive and deductive reasoning. The theory views reasoning as the controlled and mediated application of three processes— selective encoding, selective comparison, and selective combination—to inferential rules. The first two of these processes are essentially inductive in nature; the third is essentially deductive. The theory describes these three processes, specifies the kinds of inferential rules and their use in several reasoning tasks, and specifies the mediators that affect how well the processes can be applied to the rules. The theory is shown to apply to a variety of reasoning tasks and is compared to other theories as well.     

Toward a synthesis of cognitive biases: how noisy information processing can bias human decision making

A single coherent framework is proposed to synthesize long-standing research on 8 seemingly unrelated cognitive decision-making biases. During the past 6 decades, hundreds of empirical studies have resulted in a variety of rules of thumb that specify how humans systematically deviate from what is normatively expected from their decisions. Several complementary generative mechanisms have been proposed to explain those cognitive biases. Here it is suggested that (at least) 8 of these empirically detected decision-making biases can be produced by simply assuming noisy deviations in the memory-based information processes that convert objective evidence (observations) into subjective estimates (decisions). An integrative framework is presented to show how similar noise-based mechanisms can lead to conservatism, the Bayesian likelihood bias, illusory correlations, biased self-other placement, subadditivity, exaggerated expectation, the confidence bias, and the hard-easy effect. Analytical tools from information theory are used to explore the nature and limitations that characterize such information processes for binary and multiary decision-making exercises. The ensuing synthesis offers formal mathematical definitions of the biases and their underlying generative mechanism, which permits a consolidated analysis of how they are related. This synthesis contributes to the larger goal of creating a coherent picture that explains the relations among the myriad of seemingly unrelated biases and their potential psychological generative mechanisms. Limitations and research questions are discussed.     

Toward a theory of automatic information processing in reading

A model of information processing in reading is described in which visual information is transformed through a series of processing stages involving visual, phonological and episodic memory systems until it is finally comprehended in the semantic system. The processing which occurs at each stage is assumed to be learned and the degree of this learning is evaluated with respect to two criteria: accuracy and automaticity. At the accuracy level of performance, attention is assumed to be necessary for processing; at the automatic level it is not. Experimental procedures are described which attempt to measure the degree of automaticity achieved in perceptual and associative learning tasks. Factors which may influence the development of automaticity in reading are discussed.     

Binocular processing of brightness information: a vector-sum model

The relation between monocular and binocular brightness was examined. Clear evidence was found that the interaction between visual channels in binocular processing of brightness information implicates both an apparent averaging of monocular brightness when they are grossly different and a partial summation when they approach equality. A vector-sum model is shown to predict these properties. A nonmetric method was used to fit such a model to data from three experiments in each of which 15 subjects estimated brightness of binocularly fused targets. Magnitude estimation was used in two experiments, and cateogry ratings were obtained in the third experiment. When it was assumed only that subjects' responses were monotone with perceived brightness, estimates of the model's parameters from the data of the three experiments were almost identical, indicating that results from magnitude estimati;n and category rating can converge once nonlinear response functions are eliminated.     

Gestalt grouping effects on tactile information processing: when touching hands override spatial proximity

Using a tactile variant of the negative-priming paradigm, we analyzed the influence of Gestalt grouping on the ability of participants to ignore distracting tactile information. The distance between participants’ hands, to which the target and distractor stimuli were simultaneously delivered, was varied (near/touching hands vs. hands far apart). In addition, the influence of touching hands was controlled, as participants wore gloves and their hands were blocked from vision by a cover. The magnitude of the tactile negative-priming effect was modulated by the interaction between hand separation and whether or not gloves were worn. When the hands were touching, negative priming emerged only while wearing gloves that prevented direct skin-to-skin contact. In contrast, when the separation between the participants’ hands was larger, negative priming emerged only when gloves were not worn. This pattern of results is interpreted in terms of the competing influences of two interacting Gestalt principles—namely, connectedness and proximity—on the processing of tactile distractors.     

Mindless decision making and environmental issues: gestalt/feature-intensive processing and contextual reasoning in environmental decisions

In the absence of relevant information in working memory during decision consideration, respondents tend to rely on a style of cognitive processing that may result in premature or inaccurate decision making (M. J. Sharps, 2003). M. J. Sharps and S. S. Martin (2002) demonstrated this effect in executive decision making. In the present study, the authors extended these methods to decisions about environmental issues. Respondents rated decisions about issues such as overpopulation, energy policy, and food production in the presence or absence of simple pertinent information. The presence of such information in the immediate context of environmental decisions, and therefore in working memory, significantly improved respondents' ability to understand negative decision consequences. These results demonstrate the importance of contextual information in environmental decision making.     

Interpretation-based processing: a unified theory of semantic sentence comprehension

We present interpretation-based processing—a theory of sentence processing that builds a syntactic and a semantic representation for a sentence and assigns an interpretation to the sentence as soon as possible. That interpretation can further participate in comprehension and in lexical processing and is vital for relating the sentence to the prior discourse. Our theory offers a unified account of the processing of literal sentences, metaphoric sentences, and sentences containing semantic illusions. It also explains how text can prime lexical access. We show that word literality is a matter of degree and that the speed and quality of comprehension depend both on how similar words are to their antecedents in the preceding text and how salient the sentence is with respect to the preceding text. Interpretation-based processing also reconciles superficially contradictory findings about the difference in processing times for metaphors and literals. The theory has been implemented in ACT-R [Anderson and Lebiere, The Atomic Components of Thought, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers, Mahwah, NJ, 1998].     

Syntactic gender processing in the human brain: a review and a model

Despite the increasing number of neuroimaging studies of syntactic gender processing no model is currently available that includes data from visual and auditory language comprehension and language production. This paper provides a systematic review of the neural correlates of syntactic gender processing. Based on anatomical information from cytoarchitectonic probability maps it is argued that the left BA 44 plays a central role for the active use of gender information, e.g., for explicit decisions as well as for subsequent morphological encoding. The left BA 45 is involved in the strategic generation of morphological cues that facilitate gender processing. Model implications for aphasic patients with lesions including or excluding parts of Broca's speech region are discussed.     

Capacity limitations in human information processing

The nature of processing demands during a letter-match task was investigated in an extension of the Posner and Boies (1971) paradigm. In Experiment I, a visual probe was employed in addition to an auditory probe in two different experimental conditions. The shape of the auditory probe reaction time (RT) function was similar to that found by Posner and Boies. However, in contrast to their findings, RT was greatly increased shortly after presentation of the first letter for the visual probe function. It was concluded that perceptual as well as postperceptual limitations on processing capacity exist. A second experiment provided further support for this hypothesis.     

Binocular information summation and the serial processing model

An experiment was performed to ascertain whether a particular member of the class of sequential processing models (Estes & Taylor, 1964; Townsend, 1966) should be further developed in terms of the contributions of information from the separate eyes. Using the detection paradigm (Estes & Taylor, 1964), nine Ss were each run 576 trials under each of three viewing conditions: (a) monocular left, (b) monocular right, and (c) binocular, after four days of practice and calibration. The serial processing model was used to make predictions for three possible cases of binocular information summation: (a) complete independence of the monocular channels, (b) partial independence of the monocular channels and (c) complete dependence in the monocular channels. Complete dependence provided the best fit to the data with a possible stress on use of a “best” eye, but a marginal level of significance was obtained between a simple average of monocular performance and binocular performance with transformed scores. Thus, although there seems to be little or no information summation in terms of the present model of multi-symbol perception, follow-up experiments were suggested to further delineate monocular-binocular relationships in the detection paradigm.     

The temporal architecture of central information processing: Evidence for a tentative time-quantum model

Summary A new, elaborated version of a time-quantum model (TQM) is outlined and illustrated by applying it to different experimental paradigms. As a basic prerequisite TQM adopts the coexistence of different discrete time units or (perceptual) intermittencies as constituent elements of the temporal architecture of mental processes. Unlike similar other approaches, TQM assumes the existence of an absolute lower bound for intermittencies, the time-quantum T, as an (approximately) universal constant and which has a duration of approximately 4.5 ms. Intermittencies of TQM must be multiples T _k=k·T ^* within the interval T ^*T _kL·T ^*M·T ^* with T ^*=q·T and integer q, k, L, and M. Here M denotes an upper bound for multipliers characteristic of individuals, the so-called coherence length; q and L may depend on task, individual and other factors. A second constraint is that admissible intermittencies must be integer fractions of L, the operative upper bound. In addition, M is assumed to determine the number of elementary information units to be stored in short-term memory.