Negative life events, cognitive emotion regulation and emotional problems

A new questionnaire, named the Cognitive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire, has been constructed, measuring nine cognitive coping strategies people tend to use after having experienced negative life events. A test–retest design was used to study the psychometric properties and relationships with measures of depression and anxiety among 547 high school youngsters. Principal component analyses supported the allocation of items to subscales, while alphas of most subscales exceeded 0.80. Cognitive coping strategies were found to play an important role in the relationship between the experience of negative life events and the reporting of symptoms of depression and anxiety. The results suggest that cognitive coping strategies may be a valuable context of prevention and intervention     

A changed perspective: How gratitude can affect sense of coherence through positive reframing

We hypothesized that gratitude would be related to sense of coherence via positive reframing, which is a process by which negative events or circumstances are seen in a positive light. We tested this hypothesis in two studies. In Study 1 (N = 166) we found a strong, robust relationship between trait gratitude and sense of coherence above and beyond life satisfaction, positive and negative affect, happiness, and social desirability. Study 2 (N = 275) showed that gratitude at Time 1 predicted sense of coherence at Time 2, controlling for baseline scores. Positive reframing mediated the relationship between gratitude and SOC. Results are discussed in terms of their practical implications.     

Promoting adolescent sense of coherence: Testing models of risk,protection, and resiliency

Sense of coherence (SOC) is a dispositional trait that has been linked to well‐being in a broad range of populations and contexts. Little is known, however, about the factors associated with SOC development and maintenance across the lifespan. Conceptualized as a condition of resiliency, SOC in adolescents was explored via measures of risk and protection as reported on by 8th and 10th grade students (N = 1619). Employing cumulative indexes of protection and risk, analyses focused on testing four models of resiliency. Further, the relative and cumulative effects of protection and risk were explored across ecological domains. Analyses revealed support for the compensatory model of resiliency for males and females, while the challenge model also was supported for females. Analyses also revealed that protection and risk influencing SOC emerge at multiple domains for males and females. In addition, protective factors present at multiple domains were related to higher SOC while risk factors present at multiple domains were related to lower SOC regardless of gender. Results suggest a resiliency framework that considers multiple ecological domains is useful for understanding SOC in adolescents. Implications for additional research are presented. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Search for a curvilinear relationship between the sense of coherence and the intensity of PTSD in MVA survivors

Abstract

The relationship between the sense of coherence (SOC) and the intensity of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) was examined in order to determine its nature and to resolve the inconsistencies between (1) a growing body of empirical research that indicates a linear relationship between these variables, and (2) the schema-based theories of PTSD that suggest a curvilinear relationship between cognitions and the intensity of PTSD. In this cross-sectional study an attempt was also made to identify some psychological factors that moderate this relationship. Participants were a sample of 1132 motor vehicle accident (MVA) survivors. The results showed that gender and temperamental predisposition to PTSD constituted moderator variables of the relationship between SOC and the intensity of PTSD. This supported both the empirical evidence on the linear and negative relationship between SOC and the intensity of PTSD and the theories that postulated the curvilinear relationship.     

生活事件与大学生自杀意念的关系——气质性乐观的调节作用

目的在医学生中探讨气质性乐观、生活事件与自杀意念的关系。方法采用自杀意念自评量表以及乐观问卷、青少年生活事件量表对两所医学院校的800名临床医学专业学生进行调查。结果①应激事件对医学生的自杀意念水平有正向预测作用,应激事件越严重,学生的自杀意念水平越高;②气质性乐观对应激事件与自杀意念之间的关系具有调节作用。结论气质性乐观是负性生活事件与自杀意念之间的调节器。     

School context and health in adolescence: The role of sense of coherence

The aim of this study was to examine the role of school variables and sense of coherence (SOC) in the explanation of health. For this purpose, data were collected from a representative sample of adolescents, aged 13 to 18 years, selected for the Health Behavior in School‐aged Children survey in Spain. Using Structural Equation Modelling, three nested models were tested that represented different hypothesized models of the relationships among school factors, SOC and health. According to goodness‐of‐fit indices, in the best model, school‐related stress and SOC mediated the influence of support from classmates and teachers on health, and SOC had a direct effect on stress. The results supported the idea that a supportive school climate and SOC are relevant to adolescents' health. Furthermore, SOC was the most influential variable; apart from its direct positive effect on health, SOC seemed to condition the degree to which students perceived school demands to be stressful. Specifically, students with a high SOC were less likely to suffer from high levels of school‐related stress.     

Relationships,health, and stress: Validation of a relationship sense of coherence measure

Although all romantic relationships experience stress, some thrive when faced with adversity while others are unable to manage the inevitable relationship ups and downs. Rather than seeing stress as a risk factor, this study applied a Salutogenic framework, which posits that stress is a naturally occurring and potentially beneficial part of relationships, to develop a new measure of relationship health and well‐being. In Study 1, we created and tested a self‐report Relationship Sense of Coherence (RSOC) scale. Study 2 demonstrated evidence of convergent reliability for the RSOC. In Study 3, we tested the RSOC in a two‐wave sample of romantically‐involved individuals with a chronic health condition. Guidelines for use and implications for future research are discussed.     

Trait anxiety,sense of coherence and medical school stressors: Observations at three stages

Abstract

Changes in personality characteristics during young adulthood were evaluated in a three-stage study of perceptions of stressors, trait anxiety and sense of coherence among students in a six-year medical school. Data were collected during the orientation program prior to the beginning of the first year of studies, and in the middle of the first and second years.

No differences on perceptions of stressors, anxiety and sense of coherence were found between different classes tested during the same stage in their medical school careers. Changes in these variables were found, however, over the stages. Overall stressor scores increased significantly in the second year (third stage), due primarily to students' assessments of two clusters of stressors as more threatening: academic demands and professional status. Only certain groups of stressors correlated with anxiety and sense of coherence. Anxiety scores increased and sense of coherence scores decreased over time. These results indicate that exposure to a stressful environment during young adulthood, such as the early years of medical school, is manifested in significant personality changes.     

Children of alcoholics, negative life events, and early experimentation with drugs

Questionnaires were completed by sixth-grade students and their parents in order to assess differences between children of alcoholics (COAs) and their peers, as well as the relations between family environment and children's experimentation with alcohol, drugs, and tobacco. Social competence and problematic behavior were also explored. The best predictors of early experimentation with alcohol, drugs, and tobacco were the experience of negative life events, family conflict, and lack of family cohesion, but not COA status per se. Differences were found between COAs and non-COAs in respect to family structure, parent education levels, and family environment. COAs were found to be significantly more likely than their peers to experiment with tobacco, but not alcohol or drugs. They also had a tendency to engage more frequently in delinquent behavior. Recommendations for future research and implications for preventive activities are discussed.     

Change and stability of sense of coherence in adulthood: Longitudinal evidence from the Healthy Child study

The main aim of this three-wave 35-year follow-up study among Finnish employees (n = 532) was to investigate whether Sense of Coherence (SOC) is more stable among those with high SOC compared to those with low SOC, as hypothesized by Antonovsky [Antonovsky, A. (1987). Unraveling the mystery of health: how people manage stress and stay well. San Francisco, CA, US: Jossey-Bass], using two measurement points over 13 years. The participants were first studied in adolescence in 1961–1963, after which they responded to two postal questionnaires measuring SOC, first in 1985, and again in 1998. The results of the Factor Mixture Modeling identified two groups of individuals with different levels and mean changes of SOC: high-SOC (n = 344) and low-SOC (n = 188) individuals. The results supported Antonovsky’s hypothesis: SOC was more stable among high-SOC individuals (stability coefficient 0.57) than among low-SOC individuals (0.31). The results further supported the factor structure of the 11-item SOC scale. However, out of the five generalized resistance resources investigated in adolescence, only the level of home care was associated with SOC in adulthood.     

Sense of coherence as a protective factor for psychological distress among gay men: a prospective cohort study

Gay men face a greater risk of psychological distress than heterosexual men, yet research on protective factors among gay men has been limited. This prospective cohort study investigated whether a sense of coherence (SOC), as a form of coping, helps to protect against psychological distress among middle-aged and older gay men. A nationwide online survey was conducted among a baseline sample of 1135 Australian gay-identified men aged 40 years and older, with a follow-up survey 12 months later. SOC was measured using the 13-item SOC Scale. Psychological distress was measured using the K10 Psychological Distress Scale. Hierarchical regressions were conducted, with analyses controlling for several potential risk factors for distress. Over half of participants had moderate or high psychological distress. However, baseline distress was significantly lower among those with stronger baseline SOC. In addition, baseline SOC significantly predicted distress 12 months later. This predictive effect of SOC was independent of baseline distress levels and occurred despite a strong correlation between baseline and follow-up distress. With SOC appearing to be a protective factor, strategies among middle-aged and older gay men that strengthen SOC may assist in the prevention and treatment of anxiety and other psychological distress in this vulnerable population.     

The relation between low self-esteem and depressive mood in a non-clinical sample: The role of gender and negative life events

The suggestion that self-esteem is both a protective and a risk factor for depression is well documented. However, this association is not consistently observed by empirical research. The current study investigated the main and interactive effects of low self-esteem and stressful life events on depressive mood in a sample of university students (N = 862; female = 72%; black = 67%; mean age = 21.70, SD = 13.51). The students completed the Hopkins Symptom Checklist, the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, and the Perceived Stress Scale. Data were analysed using structural equation modelling (SEM); with stressful life events scores as a mediator, and gender as a moderator, of the relation between low self-esteem and depression. Results indicate that low self-esteem significantly predicted depression, and that stressful life events partially mediated that relationship. Support emerged for the vulnerability effects of low self-esteem on depression and they held across gender groups. Low self-esteem may be a significant indicator of individuals who are at risk for developing depressive mood.     

Negative life events and symptoms of depression and anxiety: stress causation and/or stress generation

Background and Objectives: Stressful life events are known to contribute to development of depression; however, it is possible this link is bidirectional. The present study examined whether such stress generation effects are greater than the effects of stressful life events on depression, and whether stress generation is also evident with anxiety. Design: Participants were two large age cohorts (N = 732 aged 44 years; N = 705 aged 63 years) from the West of Scotland Twenty-07 study. Methods: Stressful life events, depression, and anxiety symptoms were measured twice five years apart. Cross-lagged panel analysis examined the mutual influences of stressful life events on depression and on anxiety over time. Results: Life events predicted later depressive symptomatology (p = .01), but the depression predicting life events relationship was less strong (p = .06), whereas earlier anxiety predicted life events five years later (p = .001). There was evidence of sex differences in the extent to which life events predicted later anxiety. Conclusions: This study provides evidence of stress causation for depression and weaker evidence for stress generation. In contrast, there was strong evidence of stress generation for anxiety but weaker evidence for stress causation, and that differed for men and women.     

Children's loneliness, sense of coherence, family climate, and hope: developmental risk and protective factors

The study examined the contributions of individual and familial variables for the prediction of loneliness as a developmental risk and the sense of coherence as a protective factor. The sample consisted of 287 children from grades 5-6. Their loneliness, sense of coherence, hope, effort, and family climate were assessed. Separate hierarchical multiple regression analyses revealed that family cohesion and children's hope contributed to the explanation of the risk and protective outcomes. Yet, the contribution of the family adaptability was not significant. Cluster analysis of the family climate dimensions (i.e., cohesion and adaptability) was performed to clarify the interactive roles of family adaptability together with family cohesion. The authors identified 4 separate family profiles: Children in the 2 cohesive families' clusters (Cohesive Structured Families and Cohesive Adaptable Families) reported the lowest levels of loneliness and the highest levels of personal strengths. Children within rigid and noncohesive family cluster reported the highest levels of loneliness and the lowest levels of children's sense of coherence. The unique role of the family flexibility within nonsupportive family systems was demonstrated. The results further clarified the unique profiles' characteristics of the different family clusters and their adjustment indexes in terms of loneliness and personal strengths.     

Development of sense of coherence during two group interventions

Kähönen, K., Näätänen, P., Tolvanen, A. & Salmela‐Aro, K. (2012). Development of sense of coherence during two group interventions. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology 53, 523–527. Burnout is a serious occupational hazard. This study investigated the possibility to develop an effective salutogenic group intervention among employees suffering from severe burnout symptoms. Participants consisted of employees aged 31 to 59 years working in different public service occupations, such as police officers, tax officers, (and other public service officers), and assigned to three different groups: analytic (N = 25), psychodramatic (N = 24) and controls (N = 28). The intervention comprised 16 separate days over a nine‐month period. Changes in sense of coherence (SOC) were measured four times with the 13‐item Orientation to Life Questionnaire during the intervention and at six‐month follow‐up, and analyzed by general linear model (GLM) and using Cohen’s d to estimate effect sizes. Change in SOC between the three groups was statistically significant (F(4,148) = 2.65, p = 0.036). The psychodrama group showed a higher increase in SOC than the analytic group during the intervention, while the improvement in the analytic group was significant during the six‐month follow‐up. Total effect size from baseline to follow‐up was in the analytic group 0.71, in the psychodrama group 0.47, and in the control group from baseline to end of intervention 0.09. The results show that it is possible to improve SOC by group intervention in the occupational healthcare context. The dialogue‐based analytic method and action‐based psychodramatic method differ in their specific effects.     

The role of coping in the relationship between stressful life events and quality of life in persons with cancer

Objective: Stressful life events (SLEs) impact the quality of life (QOL) of cancer patients. This study investigated the mediation of the relationship between SLEs and QOL (Model 1: Emotional-EQOL and Model 2: Physical/Functional-PFQOL by three types of coping: Action/Planning, Support/Advise-Seeking, and Disengagement/Denial). Design and Main Measures: 662 persons with cancer completed a Stressful Life Events Checklist, the Brief COPE scale, the FACT Emotional, Physical, and Functional Scales, and the Physical Impact Scale of the Sickness Impact Profile. Results: SLEs were positively associated with Action/Planning (Model 1: B?=?0.195, 95% CI = [0.089, 0.304]; Model 2: B?=?0.192, 95% CI = [0.086, 0.289]) and Disengagement/Denial (Model 1: B?=?0.394, 95% CI = [0.281, 0.513]; Model 2: B = .392, 95% CI = [0.285, 0.508]) but not Support/Advice-Seeking; however, only Disengagement/Denial was related to Emotional-QOL (Model 1: B = ?0.659, 95% CI = [?0.848, ?0.498]) and Physical/Functional-QOL (Model 2: B = ?1.460, 95% CI = [?1.856, ?1.069]). Thus, only Disengagement/Denial mediated the relationship between SLEs and QOL. Conclusions: The results indicated that SLEs represent a class of events for which there may be only one dominant coping response, disengagement. SLEs may not be controllable or predictable and reduce capacity for active coping with serious illness. However, SLEs may be detected at any point in the cancer trajectory so that supportive services might be provided.     

An investigation into the relationship between the reported experience of negative life events,trait stress-sensitivity and false confessions among further education students in Iceland

This study investigates the interplay between the reported experiences of negative life events, reported levels of nerves, fear and tension experienced over the past 30 days, and reported false confessions. Data were obtained from 11,388 students in further education in Iceland, out of which 5439 participants were male and 5837 were female. Single level, random intercept, structural equation models were fitted showing that latent stress-sensitivity, indicated by levels of nerves, tension, fear, and the number of negative life events experienced exerted a significant direct effect on the likelihood of false confessions. Stress-sensitive interviewees (those reporting high levels of nerves, fear, tension and negative events) may be more susceptible to environmental influences, due to heightened physiological responsiveness towards and a negative perception of situations and social encounters, with false confessions being a direct consequence of this. A suggestion from the findings is that the type of false confession (the reason for it) may possibly dependent upon which contextual trigger has influenced the interviewee the most – those within the police interview itself and/or pressures from the wider environment within which they reside.     

Depression and resilience mediate the relationship between traumatic life events and ill physical health: results from a population study

We set out to investigate the mediating roles of depression, resilience, smoking, and alcohol use, in the relationship between potentially traumatic life events and objective and subjective, physical and mental health in a single study. A face-to-face, population-based survey was conducted in Hong Kong (N = 1147). Information on health conditions and traumatic life events was obtained, and participants completed measures of subjective physical and mental health, depression, and resilience. Smoking and drinking were not significant mediators of the relationship between life events and both objective and subjective health. Depressive symptomatology was found to mediate the relationship between life threatening illness and subjective physical health, the relationship between abuse (physical and sexual) and subjective mental health, and the relationship between the death of a parent/partner and subjective mental health. Resilience was found to mediate the relationships between multiple traumatic life events and subjective physical and mental health. Our results indicate that psychological factors rather than biological are important mediators of the relationship between life events exposure and health. Our findings provide evidence that depressive symptomatology has a mediating role only in the case of specific potentially traumatic life events and that resilience is only a critical factor in the face of exposure to multiple traumatic events, rather than single events. Our results also indicate that behavioural factors, such as smoking and drinking, are not significant mediators of the relationship between life events and health.     

Averaging and summation: Positivity and choice as a function of the number and affective intensity of life events

Six experiments were reported that investigated individuals’ perceptions of positive life events and their preferences for options presenting different combinations of positive event frequency and magnitude. Results revealed that individuals often responded to the average level of positivity and preferred less (versus more) positive events and supported the averaging/summation model of life event integration. Results revealed, for example, that participants felt more positive affect when they were exposed to a highly positive event than a highly positive plus mildly positive one. When the events had similar affective intensities, however, summation effects were obtained—more was better. In demonstrating averaging and summation effects, we delineated situations in which more positive life events can be better (summation effects) and situations in which more can be worse (averaging effects). Results also ruled out several alternative accounts, including the peak-end rule, economic, affective forecasting, and an assimilation/contrast interpretation.