The effects of short term flotation REST on relaxation: a controlled study

The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of restricted environmental stimulation using a flotation tank (Flotation REST) to the effects of a normal sensory environment on relaxation. All of the subjects were first introduced to a simple relaxation program to be used during the experimental sessions. The program consisted of guided point-to-point relaxation, breathing techniques, and visual imagery techniques. Subjects were then pre-tested on measurements of electromyogram (EMG), galvanic skin response (GSR), peripheral skin temperature, and systolic and diastolic blood pressure. The experimental group experienced ten 45-minute sessions practicing the relaxation program in a Flotation REST environment. The control subjects practiced the same relaxation program in a similar body position for 45 minutes in a normal sensory environment. All subjects answered a five-question Subjective Relaxation Questionnaire on trials five through ten and were then post-tested on EMG, GSR, skin temperature, and blood pressure. The results indicated significant differences between groups from pre-test to post-test on systolic and diastolic blood pressure; the experimental group showed greater reductions. Significant differences also were observed on three of five questions on the Subjective Relaxation Questionnaire; the experimental group reported greater subjective relaxation and trends in a similar direction on the remaining two questions. The results of this study indicate that flotation REST enhances point-to-point relaxation, breathing techniques, and visual imagery techniques and, when combined with these techniques, can be an effective means of teaching normal subjects to lower systolic and diastolic pressure and heighten their subjective perception of relaxation.     

Restricted Environmental Stimulation Therapy and Behavioral Self-Management in Smoking Cessation1

The relative impacts on smoking behavior of restricted environmental stimulation therapy (REST), behavioral self-management, and the combination were compared. Fifteen smokers from the community were treated in each of the three conditions and followed over a 12-month period. The combined treatment was very successful compared to standard smoking interventions (a mean of 66% reduction from baseline smoking rate and 53% of subjects completely abstinent on the 1-year follow-up), and subjects in this group smoked significantly less than those in either the REST or behavioral self-management only condition. Furthermore, subjects receiving REST, alone or in combination, were significantly less likely to relapse following treatment. The results were taken to support the importance of addressing multiple change objectives in smoking cessation programs.     

Outpatient behavioral management of aggressiveness in adolescents: A response cost paradigm

This study focuses on outpatient behavioral management of oppositional‐defiant teenagers that engage in aggressive behaviors. Sixteen subjects, 13 male and three female, are followed through an alternating treatment, single case design, ABCD: baseline; cognitive therapy coupled with the REST (Real Economy System for Teens) program for parental outpatient behavioral management; combined cognitive, REST, and response cost; and finally REST with response cost to control aggressive behaviors. The response cost was designed to control aggression. Response cost involved the parents identifying seven reinforcers, objects, and activities that are important to the teen. They are rank ordered, with item one being most important and item seven being least important. An aggressive act means the loss of an item for 1 year, beginning with item seven and progressing upward. This study finds that aggressive behaviors do not decrease with cognitive therapy and the REST program. When the more stringent response cost program is implemented in addition to the cognitive and REST techniques, the acts of aggression do respond to treatment. Thus, it is concluded that adding a stringent parent management response cost program offers a tool therapists can use in treating aggressive, oppositional‐defiant teenagers on an outpatient basis without the need for hospitalization. Aggr. Behav. 25:321–330, 1999. © 1999 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Relational Spirituality and Dealing With Transgressions: Development of the Relational Engagement of the Sacred for a Transgression (REST) Scale

In the study of spirituality and forgiveness, researchers have begun to look at how dynamic spiritual experiences influence forgiveness. In three studies, we develop the Relational Engagement of the Sacred for a Transgression (REST) Scale, which assesses the extent to which victims actively engage a relationship with the Sacred to deal with a specific transgression. In Study 1, exploratory factor analysis was used to determine the factor structure of the REST. In Study 2, the factor structure was replicated using confirmatory factory analysis. The REST was correlated with religious commitment and negatively related to avoidant attachment to God. In Study 3, evidence supporting the scale's construct validity was adduced. REST scores were correlated with other appraisals of relational spirituality. Structural equation modeling was used to compare theoretical models. REST scores were related to dedication to the Sacred and viewing the transgression as a desecration. In addition, REST scores were positively related to empathy, which was positively related to forgiveness. Furthermore, REST scores predicted forgiveness above and beyond other appraisals of relational spirituality.     

Effects of experimental context, demand characteristics, and situational cues: new data

When in 1964 stress induced by Restricted Environmental Stimulation (REST) was publicized, Orne and Scheibe showed "sensory deprivation" effects could be produced merely by manipulating contextual cues. Since REST is now widely regarded as beneficial, it seemed appropriate to reexamine these early findings. Stringently replicating Orne and Scheibe's procedures, 10 subjects were exposed to conditions designed to generate expected REST effects. Conditions for 10 controls suggested that nothing was expected to happen. Analyses did not confirm earlier findings as no significant difference was found between experimental and control groups on any measure. A postexperimental inquiry identified positive attitudes toward REST. The specific experimental context, demand characteristics, and situational cues did not elicit responses inconsistent with the general sociopsychological context. Researchers are cautioned about attributing causality to contextual cues because context exists merely at a correlative level with data collection.     

Conditioned leg movement in the cat with massed trials,trace conditioning,and weak US intensity

Six male cats served as subjects in a classical conditioning experiment designed to assess the development of an overt conditioned response with experimental parameters that had been demonstrated to produce conditioning of neuro-electrical activity in immobilized cats. The subjects were physically restrained by means of an adjustable full-body cast during the experimental sessions which consisted of 75 habituation trials (light flash alone) followed by 225 trials with light and shock paired in a trace conditioning manner, and 75 additional extinction trials (light alone). The subjects were divided into two groups, and three different experimental sessions were given to each on three consecutive days. Group I received low US intensity (18 v) conditioning on the first day, high US (45–85 v) conditioning on Day 2 and pseudoconditioning on Day 3. Group II received the same sessions, but in a pseudoconditioning —high US—low US order. The results indicated that a conditioned leg movement was produced when the CS was paired in a trace conditioning fashion with either the high or low intensity shock US. The development of the conditioned leg movement across trials was found to be very similar to that of the conditioned neural activity in a previous study using comparable stimuli and procedures.     

Initial relaxation response: contrasts between clinical patients and normal volunteers

The effectiveness of EMG biofeedback, progressive muscle relaxation, autogenic training, and self-relaxation were compared using a within-subjects design. Thirteen clinical subjects and 48 normal volunteers participated in 4 counterbalanced relaxation sessions using one of the techniques. Frontalis EMG and surface skin temperature were monitored throughout the sessions. For reducing EMG, biofeedback was more effective than the other three techniques. A significant interaction of treatment X subjects was found for changes in skin temperature. Clinical subjects had the greatest increase in skin temperature with EMG biofeedback and analog subjects responded best to self-relaxation. There were no significant differences in initial measures of EMG or skin temperature for the two samples.     

Behavior therapy for obesity: Booster sessions and long-term maintenance of weight loss

Following 8 weekly sessions of group behavioral self-control treatment, 75 obese women were assigned to one of five different maintenance conditions: (a) structured behavioral booster sessions held every two weeks; (b) structured behavioral booster sessions held every month; (c) unstructured nonspecific booster sessions held every two weeks; (d) unstructured nonspecific booster sessions held every month; and (e) a control group that received no booster sessions. Follow-ups were conducted at 3, 6, 9 and 12 month intervals. The study was completed in two replications. Results failed to show a significant effect of either booster session content or frequency. All groups continued to lose weight during the first three months of follow-up. Thereafter subjects in Replication 1 showed significant increases in weight over the next 9 months, whereas subjects in Replication 2 maintained their treatment-produced weight loss. The data do not support the view that booster sessions facilitate maintenance.     

Delayed Alternation to Non-Positional Cues in Chimpanzee

Three subjects were exposed to fixed-ratio schedules of reinforcement in a two-phase experiment. In the first phase, sessions were terminated after a fixed number of responses had been emitted. In the second phase, sessions were terminated after a fixed length of time (equivalent to the mean of session lengths when steady state responding occurred in Phase 1). A comparison of response rates showed higher rates for all subjects in Phase 2.     

The effect of couples training and partner co-operativeness in the behavioral treatment of obesity

To evaluate the influence of spouse co-operativeness and couples training in the treatment of obesity, 29 obese men and women were assigned to three experimental conditions: (1) Co-operative spouse-couples training: subjects attended all meetings with spouses. Spouses were trained in modeling, monitoring, and reinforcement techniques; (2) Co-operative spouse-subject alone: subjects attended meetings alone even though their partners had agreed to become involved in treatment; (3) Non-cooperative spouse: subjects had spouses refusing to participate in the program, and attended sessions alone. At the 3-month and 6-month maintenance assessments. subjects in the spouse training condition lost significantly more weight than subjects in the other two conditions. Weight losses compared favorably to those of any controlled study with subjects in the couples training group averaging nearly 30 lbs lost after 8$\text{1}\text{2}$ months of treatment. In the absence of spouse training, subjects with co-operative spouses did no better than subjects with non-co-operative spouses. The findings suggest that spouse training may have a potent facilitative effect in weight reduction, and that this effect may promote long-term maintenance of weight loss.     

参考选择影响情绪加工相关的ERPs

研究采用情绪图片观看任务,考察双耳乳突参考、全脑平均参考和参考电极标准化技术（Reference electrode standardization technique, REST）对情绪相关ERP成分在波幅、统计功效、内部一致性方面的影响,以及参考选择对ERP伪迹剔除率的影响。结果显示,双耳乳突参考下颞区EPN的波幅显著小于REST和全脑平均参考下的结果,而在顶区LPP上表现出完全相反的结果。此外,双耳乳突和全脑平均参考下更可能检测到P2上负性和中性图片波幅间的差异,而REST和全脑平均参考下更可能检测到EPN的“正性偏向”效应。未来研究应结合以往文献和特定成分谨慎选择参考类型。     

Effects of variable-interval value and amount of training on stimulus generalization.

In Experiment 1 pigeons pecked a key that was illuminated with a 501-nm light and obtained food by doing so according to a variable-interval (VI) schedule of reinforcement, the mean value of which differed across groups: either 30 s, 120 s, or 240 s. The pigeons in all three groups were trained for 10 50-min sessions. Generalization testing was conducted in extinction with different wavelengths of light. Absolute and relative generalization gradients were similar in shape for the three groups. Experiment 2 was a systematic replication of Experiment 1 using line orientation as the stimulus dimension and a mean VI value of either 30 s or 240 s. Again, gradients of generalization were similar for the two groups. In Experiment 3 pigeons pecked a key that was illuminated with a 501-nm light and obtained food reinforcers according to either a VI 30-s or a 240-s schedule. Training continued until response rates stabilized (> 30 sessions). For subjects trained with the 30-s schedule, generalization gradients were virtually identical regardless of whether training was for 10 sessions (Experiment 1) or until response rates stabilized. For subjects trained with the VI 240-s schedule, absolute generalization gradients for subjects trained to stability were displaced upward relative to gradients for subjects trained for only 10 sessions (Experiment 1), and relative generalization gradients were slightly flatter. These results indicate that the shape of a generalization gradient does not necessarily depend on the rate of reinforcement during 10-session single-stimulus training but that the effects of prolonged training on stimulus generalization may be schedule dependent.     

Punished and Nonpunished Responding in A Multiple Schedule in Humans: A Brief Report

Four male subjects responded on a multiple schedule in which responding was maintained by a random interval 20-sec (RI20) schedule of point presentation. Responding was suppressed in alternating components by an added variable ratio 30 (VR30) schedule of point subtractions. Each component was accompanied by distinctive stimulus lights. Subjects were exposed to the multiple schedule from the initial session. Two subjects experienced four 50-min sessions daily (Experiment 1) and the other two subjects participated in one 50-min session daily (Experiment 2). Once responding in the punished components had stabilized, responding in the nonpunished components continued to increase across sessions. Nonpunished responding did not stabilize even after as many as 36 sessions. These results are discussed in the context of previous studies using animals which employed multiple schedules with punished and nonpunished response contingencies.

     

ASSESSING AND PROGRAMMING GENERALIZED BEHAVIORAL REDUCTION ACROSS MULTIPLE STIMULUS PARAMETERS

Generalization across three stimulus parameters was examined for 5 individuals whose self-injurious behavior was maintained by escape from task demands. Prior to treatment, three stimulus parameters (therapist, setting, and demands) were systematically varied across baseline sessions. These variables were held constant during treatment, which consisted of escape extinction. When treatment was completed, three novel stimulus parameters were probed. If the rate of self-injury was high during this probe, treatment was reimplemented with one new stimulus parameter (the other two were the same as in the original treatment condition). Following this second treatment, another probe with three novel stimuli was conducted. If the rate of self-injury was again high, treatment was implemented again while a second stimulus parameter was changed. This sequence continued until generalization was observed across the three parameters. Results showed idiosyncratic differences in generalization. The behavior of 2 subjects showed complete generalization during the first novel probe. A 3rd subject's behavior showed generalization following treatment across two stimulus parameters (setting and therapist). The behavior of the 2 remaining subjects showed a complete lack of generalization across the three parameters; both subjects required training for novelty by randomly varying the stimulus parameters for a substantial number of sessions.     

Electrode placement,EMG feedback,and relaxation for tension headaches

Fifteen tension headache subjects were allocated to one of three groups: direct EMG feedback (from a site corresponding to the source of pain), indirect EMG feedback (from a site not corresponding to the source of the pain) and relaxation instructions. There were two base-line, six treatment and one post-treatment sessions. No significant differences were found between base-line and post-treatment EMG levels, for any of the groups; however, some significant reductions in levels were obtained within sessions. EMG levels recorded during headache attacks did not differ significantly from levels recorded during base-line. Frequency and intensity of headaches were significantly reduced, particularly in the relaxation group. At follow-up this improvement was maintained for subjects with forehead pain, but differences between the groups had disappeared.     

Potentiation by a taste of toxicosis-based context conditioning: Effects of varying the test fluid

Rats that drank water in a distinctive environment and were then injected with lithium chloride (water-lithium condition) were compared with those given an added taste on those conditioning sessions (sucrose-lithium condition). In three experiments this taste potentiated a conditioned aversion to the context, as measured by suppression of intake of another solution: either a novel sour taste (Experiments 1 and 2) or a familiar saline solution (Experiment 3). In contrast, this potentiation effect was not detected when subjects were tested with water, whether a high or low dose of lithium was used (Experiment 2). Instead, in Experiments 1 and 2 water-lithium subjects drank less water than did the sucrose-lithium subjects on such tests i.e. an apparent overshadowing effect, which was the opposite outcome to that found previously using almost identical procedures. Intake on recovery sessions in another context suggested that, when water is used as the test fluid, potentiation can be masked by two factors: a context-dependent aversion to water in water-lithium subjects, and a conditioned inhibition effect of water in sucrose-lithium subjects. These may account for previous failures to detect potentiation of context conditioning.     

Primary process in competitive archery performance: Effects of flotation REST

Abstract

The purpose of the present study was to investigate whether or nor the floating form of Restricted Environmental Stimulation Technique (REST) may be exploited within the field of competitive archery to reinforce primary process (inner-directed) orientation and thereby enhance the quality of coaching and training. Floatation REST consists of a procedure whereby an individual is immersed in a water-tank filled with saltwater of an extremely high salt concentration. The experiment was performed over the course of two weekends with a 6-week interval. Twenty participating archers, 13 male and 7 female, were recruited. The between-group factor was “adjudged skill.” The within-group factor was provided by an Armchair condition in which the participants sat in an armchair for 45 min after which they were required to shoot four salvo series of three shots each, as a comparison to the Flotation-Rest condition whereby the participants were required to lie in a floating-tank for 45 min just prior to shooting. Results indicated that: (a) the participants experienced less perceived exertion during marksmanship in the floating condition, (b) the elite archers performed more consistently in the Flotation-REST condition, (c) the least and most proficient archers had lower muscle tension in the Extensor Digitorum in the Flotation REST condition.     

ASSESSMENT OF STIMULI CONTROLLING THE REQUESTS OF STUDENTS WITH SEVERE MENTAL RETARDATION DURING A SNACK ROUTINE

This study assessed stimuli controlling requests during a snack routine after extensive request training with a delayed prompt procedure. During training sessions, one of three three-item snack groups was presented to 3 subjects with severe mental retardation. Assessment sessions involved (a) training conditions (all items were visible), (b) presenting two of three items from a particular group, or (c) presenting no items. One subject requested food items when no food items were present, 2 frequently requested a missing item when the two other items were visible, and all subjects requested visible items. Procedures for assessing stimulus control, such as those described in the current paper, should lead to a better understanding of the variables controlling behaviors that initially appear perplexing and unpredictable.     

Context specificity of latent inhibition in taste aversion learning

In three experiments rats were given injections of LiCl after consuming distinctively flavoured water. The rats developed an aversion to the flavour and in all experiments the magnitude of the aversion was found to be reduced in subjects that had received pre-exposure to the flavour without aversive consequences. Experiment 1 demonstrated this pre-exposure effect to be a case of latent inhibition. The remaining experiments investigated the effects of pre-exposing the flavour in a context different from that used for conditioning. It was found (Experiment 2) diat latent inhibition transferred perfectly when the context change consisted of a move from one home cage to another. Context specificity of latent inhibition was found (Experiment 3) only when the subjects were given daily sessions in die experimental contexts, these being cages different from the home cage.     

THE TRAINING AND GENERALIZATION OF A CONVERSATIONAL SPEECH FORM IN NONVERBAL RETARDATES1

Differential reinforcement and imitation were used with two retarded children to train three sequential verbal responses associated with the display of a picture and questions related to that picture. Each response consisted of a three-word chain in sentence form; combined with verbal responses from the experimenter, this trained sequence formed a short conversational unit. Three experimenters measured the use of each sentence in settings different than the one in which training took place, and with pictures different than those used during training. Two types of generalization sessions were used: (1) General sessions, during which 10 pictures never used during training were displayed to the subject with reinforcement delivered on a noncontingent basis, and (2) Intermixed sessions, during which 10 pictures never used during training were displayed to the subject, but a picture having received training was also displayed, and correct responses to this picture were reinforced on a variable schedule. Both subjects learned the sentences being trained. However, little generalization was evident from this training when all experimenters conducted General probe sessions. Generalization occurred with one experimenter only after that experimenter conducted Intermixed probe sessions. Generalization to a third experimenter was then observed (i.e., after the first two experimenters had conducted Intermixed probe sessions) without the use of Intermixed probe sessions by this third experimenter.