Negative anticipatory contrast and preference conditioning: flavor cues support preference conditioning, and environmental cues support contrast.

In 2 experiments, access to a 0.15% saccharin solution was followed on alternating days by access to a 32% sucrose solution and the same saccharin solution. In Experiment 1, rats increased both intake of and preference for a flavored saccharin solution that predicted sucrose, but neither effect was found using a predictive odor cue alone. Experiment 2 replicated the predictive flavor results but showed suppression of saccharin intake when environmental cues predicted sucrose. When both flavor and environment predicted sucrose, saccharin intake did not change, but preference for the predictive flavor increased. Discriminative taste cues appear to facilitate the development of preference conditioning, but environmental cues favor negative anticipatory contrast effects. Also, preference conditioning and contrast may develop concurrently and compete for expression.     

Cocaine and food deprivation: effects on food-reinforced fixed-ratio performance in pigeons.

Key pecking by 6 pigeons was maintained by a fixed-ratio 30 schedule of food presentation while body weights were 80% of free-feeding weights. Acute administration of cocaine (0.3 to 13.0 mg/kg, i.m.) dose-dependently decreased response rates. Dose-effect curves were shifted to the right when 3 of the 6 pigeons were maintained at 70% of free-feeding weights and were shifted to the left when the other 3 pigeons were maintained at 90% of free-feeding weights. Then a dose of cocaine that initially decreased response rates by more than 95% of control rates was administered before each daily session. Comparable degrees of tolerance to these rate-decreasing effects developed in the two groups. The rate at which responding recovered was relatively rapid for pigeons in the 70% free-feeding-weight group and was slower for 2 of the 3 pigeons in the 90% free-feeding-weight group. When body weights were then increased from 70% to 80% or were decreased from 90% to 80% of free-feeding weight, performance was disrupted initially only for pigeons whose weight went from 70% to 80% of free feeding. In the present experiment the degree of deprivation may have indirectly influenced the degree of tolerance that developed to cocaine's response rate-decreasing effects because it directly influenced the dose chosen to be administered chronically. The degree of deprivation appeared to have a more direct influence on the rate at which tolerance developed.     

Influence of infant and child facial cues of low body weight on adults' ratings of adoption preference,cuteness, and health

Infant and child facial cues have been shown to influence decisions and perceptions associated with parental care in adults. Low body weight reflects health problems in infants and children; therefore, facial cues associated with low body weight may influence adult cognitive processes associated with parental care and investment. Facial images of infants and children were digitally manipulated to simulate cues of low body weight and presented to adults using a hypothetical adoption paradigm. Participants' ratings of adoption preference, cuteness, and health were significantly lower for the digitally manipulated low body weight facial images than their unaltered counterparts. These findings support the hypothesis that facial cues of poor health negatively influence adults' responses to infants and children.     

The effects of food deprivation,aggression, and isolation on infanticide in the male Mongolian gerbil

Male Mongolian gerbils show an increase in infanticide and pup-cannibalism after 24-hr food deprivation, suggesting that food acquisition is a function of this activity. Dominant animals show high levels of infanticide, but subordinate animals are inhibited from this activity. An increase in infanticide is seen when males from a single sex group are isolated; this increase resembles that observed when a male is separated from his pregnant mate [Elwood, 1980]. These results suggest a mechanism whereby males are normally brought into a noninfanticidal state during cohabitation with their pregnant mates owing to subordination by the latter. In this manner males are able to utilize strange pups as food but avoid harming their own offspring.     

The interactive effects of perceived external prestige and need for organizational identification on turnover intentions

Recent research has highlighted the importance of understanding the influence of an organization’s external image on its members. Although progress has been made in understanding how perceived external prestige relates to workplace outcomes, researchers have not examined the joint effect of perceived external prestige and individual differences on such outcomes. In this article, we tested the impact of perceived external prestige on turnover intentions, but we also assumed that this influence is moderated by individuals’ need for organizational identification. Using three samples and a longitudinal research design, we found consistent support for this assumption. These results provide empirical support for the theoretical integration of social identity and need-based motivation theories.     

Cognitive processing of uncertainty: Its effect on pupillary dilation and preference ratings

The prediction of greater pupillary dilation as unpredictability (induced by random-turn shapes) increased was supported (p <.001) in studies involving 40 young adults and 10 children. The postulated linearity of this increase found support, except in cases where apparent stimulus-selection strategies attenuated the dilation at higher levels of variability. Those Ss who did preference ratings concomitantly with the intake of visual unpredictability evidenced significantly greater dilation (p <.001) at the time of reporting the rating. Both children and adults dilated significantly less to the shapes after prolonged experience with similar stimuli. indicating development of either ability to handle variability or to selectively filter input, but age was not a factor. The lack of any significant relationship between pupillary dilation and preference indicated the need for more definitive work in determining when these two indices profitably complement each other. Finally, adults dilated more to provocative auditory stimuli than to the visual shapes.     

The interactive effects of perceived external prestige and need for organizational identification on turnover intentions

Recent research has highlighted the importance of understanding the influence of an organization’s external image on its members. Although progress has been made in understanding how perceived external prestige relates to workplace outcomes, researchers have not examined the joint effect of perceived external prestige and individual differences on such outcomes. In this article, we tested the impact of perceived external prestige on turnover intentions, but we also assumed that this influence is moderated by individuals’ need for organizational identification. Using three samples and a longitudinal research design, we found consistent support for this assumption. These results provide empirical support for the theoretical integration of social identity and need-based motivation theories.     

Rats (Rattus norvegicus) modulate eating speed and vigilance to optimize food consumption: effects of cover, circadian rhythm, food deprivation, and individual differences.

The eating behavior of rats (Rattus norvegicus) given food pellets of specified size was examined as a function of environmental, circadian, and experiential influences. Eating times were shorter in lighted, exposed environments than in dark, covered environments, even though in novel, exposed conditions the rats made many scanning movements as they ate. Eating time also varied as a function of the circadian cycle in that eating times were shorter in the night portion of the day-night cycle. Finally, eating times decreased if rats were food deprived, and deprivation had a small but enduring influence. Within the tests there were differences in the eating times of individual rats that were not attributable to the experimental manipulations. That rats can optimize food intake by varying eating speed is discussed in relation to physiological regulation of feeding and to optimal foraging theory.     

On the effects of food deprivation and component reinforcer rates on multiple-schedule performance

Six pigeons were used to investigate the effects of varying body weight and component reinforcer rates in two-component multiple variable-interval variable-interval schedules. In Parts 1 and 3 of the experiment, unequal component reinforcer rates were arranged, and body weights were respectively increased and decreased. At 80% ad lib weight, response-rate ratios were closer to unity than reinforcer-rate ratios, but at 100% or more of ad lib weight, response-rate ratios generally equaled reinforcer-rate ratios. In Part 2, component reinforcer-rate ratios were varied over five conditions with the subjects maintained at 100% or more of their ad lib weights, and response-rate ratios matched reinforcer-rate ratios. The data thus support the empirical finding that response allocation in multiple schedules is a function of deprivation. Although this qualitative result is predicted by three models of multiple-schedule performance, only a model that assumes no direct component interaction adequately describes the data.     

Predicting future blood donor returns: past behavior, intentions, and observer effects.

A prospective design was used to explore the efficacy of 6 factors (e.g., intentions) to predict the number of future blood donations in an initial sample of 630 blood donors. Differential predictions are made for the roles of past behavior and intentions with respect to occasional (4 or fewer previous blood donations) and regular (5 or more previous blood donations) blood donors. Intentions were predictive for occasional donors, and past behavior was predictive for regular donors. Furthermore, for regular donors only, an inverted U-shaped curve explained the relationship between past behavior and future behavior. Finally, it is reported that observing others fainting produces a reduction in the number of future donations for occasional donors. The theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.     

Addictive buying: causes, processes, and symbolic meanings. Thematic analysis of a buying addict's diary

The aims of this study were twofold. On the one hand, to reach an understanding of, and to illustrate the experience of addictive buying and, on the other, to throw some light on the controversial subject of addicts' personal responsibility for their behavior. With these aims, a thematic analysis of an extensive diary written by a compulsive buyer is presented. Four themes emerge from the analysis: the defining characteristics of addiction to buying that determine the boundary separating it from other forms of impulsive or careless buying; several causal factors; the role that money and material objects play in family relationships and friendships through the symbolic meanings they adopt; and the relationship of personal values with impulsiveness and self-control. In view of the results, the moral model of addiction to buying is discussed, and an explanatory model of the ambivalence that is characteristic of addiction to buying is proposed, based on a personal hierarchy of values.     

Effects of gastric loads and food deprivation on subsequent food intake in suckling rats.

Suckling rats were subjected to deprivation periods of 6-8 hr. Intake following deprivation was greater in deprived than in nondeprived sucklings, but did not increase with increasing deprivation. Gastric loads of NaCl solutions depressed subsequent intake; 3% NaCl was more effective than .9% NaCl. Other gastric loads of varying osmotic and caloric value also depressed subsequent intake. In order of increasing effectiveness in depressing intake, the gastric loads were protein hydrolystate, heavy cream, water, milk, lactose, glucose, and corn oil. Effectiveness was unrelated to osmotic or caloric value of the load. Gastric fill and, possibly, some property of carbohydrate appear to be important determinants of satiety in the suckling rat.     

I am happy in my faith: the influence of religious affiliation,saliency, and practice on depressive symptoms and treatment preference

Religion is thought to significantly impact numerous areas of mental health, including depression. Using a 63-item questionnaire, the influence of religious affiliation, saliency, and practice on levels of depressive symptoms and treatment preference in a non-clinical sample of Christians, Muslims, Atheists, and Agnostics (N = 471) was investigated. No significant differences in depressive symptoms were found between affiliations. Saliency and frequency of practice had a weak negative correlation with depressive symptoms for Christians, but were not significant for Muslim participants. No significant differences of preference were found between affiliations for social, cognitive, and medical treatments. Treatment preference of religious-based treatments differed significantly between affiliations. Findings suggest that affiliation is not significantly related to depressive symptoms or treatment preference, and the influence of saliency and practice differs between religions. Limitations and implications of the current study are discussed, and directions for further research are identified.     

Presentation modality and indirect performance information: effects on ratings,reactions, and memory

The authors investigated whether raters integrate indirect (second-hand) information from an employee's co-worker with their direct observations when completing performance evaluations. Performance levels of direct and indirect information and presentation modality (auditory vs. textual) were manipulated (N = 220). Results showed that indirect information was perceived to be of highest utility when the performance levels of the direct and indirect information were consistent. Confidence in performance ratings was lowest when the indirect source delivered negative performance feedback that was contrary to the rater's own positive observations. Indirect information was only reflected in the performance ratings when direct observations were positive. There was a significant 3-way interaction between performance level of the direct information, performance level of the indirect information, and presentation modality on memory for performance incidents.     

Eat,drink, and be merry,for tomorrow we diet: effects of anticipated deprivation on food intake in restrained and unrestrained eaters

This study examined the effect of anticipated food deprivation on intake in restrained and unrestrained eaters. Participants were randomly assigned to a diet condition, in which they expected to diet for a week, or to a control (no-diet) condition. Immediately after being assigned to a condition, participants completed a taste-rating task in which food consumption was measured. Restrained eaters in the diet condition consumed significantly more food than did restrained eaters in the no-diet condition or unrestrained eaters in either condition. Unrestrained eaters consumed the same amount regardless of condition. These results confirm that merely planning to go on a diet can trigger overeating in restrained eaters, reflecting the dynamic connection between dieting and overeating.     

The effects of promotion and prevention cues on creativity.

This study tested whether cues associated with promotion and prevention regulatory foci influence creativity. The authors predicted that the "risky," explorative processing style elicited by promotion cues, relative to the risk-averse, perseverant processing style elicited by prevention cues, would facilitate creative thought. These predictions were supported by two experiments in which promotion cues bolstered both creative insight (Experiment 1) and creative generation (Experiment 2) relative to prevention cues. Experiments 3 and 4 provided evidence for the process account of these findings. suggesting that promotion cues, relative to prevention cues, produce a riskier response bias (Experiment 3) and bolster memory search for novel responses (Experiment 4). A final experiment provided evidence that individual differences in regulatory focus influence creative problem solving in a manner analogous to that of incidental promotion and prevention cues.