Visual distraction and visuo-spatial memory: a sandwich effect

The functional characteristics of visuo-spatial serial memory and its sensitivity to irrelevant visual information are examined in the present study, through the investigation of the sandwich effect (e.g., Hitch, 1975). The memory task was one of serial recall for the position of a sequence of seven spatially and temporally separated dots. The presence of irrelevant dots interpolated with to-be-remembered dots affected performance over most serial positions (Experiment 1) but that effect was significantly reduced when the interpolated dots were distinct from the to-be-remembered dots by colour and shape (Experiment 2). Parallels are made between verbal and spatial serial memory, and the reduction of the sandwich effect is discussed in terms of the contribution of perceptual organisation and attentional factors in short-term memory.     

Echoic and retrieval accounts of the long-term modality effect tested using the suffix procedure

The long-term modality effect is the advantage in recall of the last of a list of auditory to-be-remembered (TBR) items compared with the last of a list of visual TBR items when the list is followed by a filled retention interval. If the auditory advantage is due to echoic sensory memory mechanisms, then recall of the last auditory TBR item should be substantially reduced when it is followed by a redundant, not-to-be-recalled auditory suffix. Contrary to this prediction, Experiment 1 demonstrated that a redundant auditory suffix does not significantly reduce recall of the last auditory TBR item. In Experiment 2 a nonredundant auditory suffix produced a large reduction in the last auditory item. Redundancy is not the only factor controlling the effectiveness of a suffix, however. Experiment 3 demonstrated that a nonredundant visual suffix does not reduce recall of the last auditory TBR item. These results are discussed in reference to a retrieval account of the long-term modality effect.     

Auditory memory and the irrelevant sound effect: Further evidence for changing-state disruption

Four experiments investigate the hypothesis that irrelevant sound interferes with serial recall of auditory items in the same fashion as with visually presented items. In Experiment 1 an acoustically changing sequence of 30 irrelevant utterances was more disruptive than 30 repetitions of the same utterance (the changing-state effect; Jones, Madden, & Miles, 1992) whether the to-be-remembered items were visually or auditorily presented. Experiment 2 showed that two different utterances spoken once (a heterogeneous compound suffix; LeCompte & Watkins, 1995) produced less disruption to serial recall than 15 repetitions of the same sequence. Disruption thus depends on the number of sounds in the irrelevant sequence. In Experiments 3a and 3b the number of different sounds, the "token-set" size (Tremblay & Jones, 1998), in an irrelevant sequence also influenced the magnitude of disruption in both irrelevant sound and compound suffix conditions. The results support the view that the disruption of memory for auditory items, like memory for visually presented items, is dependent on the number of different irrelevant sounds presented and the size of the set from which these sounds are taken. Theoretical implications are discussed.     

Exploring the characteristics of the visuospatial hebb repetition effect

Using the dot task (see Jones, Farrand, Stuart, & Morris, 1995)--regarded as a good visuospatial analogue of the verbal serial recall task--we examined whether the Hebb repetition effect and its characteristics can be extended to visuospatial material. Classically, the Hebb effect has been associated with serial verbal memory: Repetition of a to-be-remembered sequence of verbal items every third trial markedly improves serial recall of that sequence. In the present study, Hebb effects were observed with visuospatial information, and a direct comparison between verbal and spatialsequence learning revealed that the Hebb repetition effect for visuospatial information shares similar characteristics with its verbal analogue. Our results cast some doubt regarding the parsimony of the view that the classical verbal Hebb effect is driven by a store specialized for phonological information and impose some further constraints on modeling serial memory and implicit sequence learning.     

Manipulations of irrelevant information: Suffix effects with articulatory suppression and irrelevant speech

Numerous studies have demonstrated impaired recall when the to-be-remembered information is accompanied or followed by irrelevant information. However, no current theory of immediate memory explains all three common methods of manipulating irrelevant information: requiring concurrent articulation, presenting irrelevant speech, and adding a stimulus suffix. Five experiments combined these manipulations to determine how they interact and which theoretical framework most accurately and completely accounts for the data. In Experiments 1 and 2, a list of auditory items was followed by an irrelevant speech sound (the suffix) while subjects engaged in articulatory suppression. Although articulatory suppression reduced overall recall compared to a control condition, comparable suffix effects were seen in both conditions. Experiments 3 and 4 found reliable suffix effects when list presentation was accompanied by irrelevant speech. Experiment 5 found a suffix effect even when the irrelevant speech was composed of a set of different items. Implications for working memory, pre-categorical acoustic store, the changing-state hypothesis, and the feature model are discussed.     

Modality independence of order coding in working memory: Evidence from cross-modal order interference at recall

Working memory researchers do not agree on whether order in serial recall is encoded by dedicated modality-specific systems or by a more general modality-independent system. Although previous research supports the existence of autonomous modality-specific systems, it has been shown that serial recognition memory is prone to cross-modal order interference by concurrent tasks. The present study used a serial recall task, which was performed in a single-task condition and in a dual-task condition with an embedded memory task in the retention interval. The modality of the serial task was either verbal or visuospatial, and the embedded tasks were in the other modality and required either serial or item recall. Care was taken to avoid modality overlaps during presentation and recall. In Experiment 1, visuospatial but not verbal serial recall was more impaired when the embedded task was an order than when it was an item task. Using a more difficult verbal serial recall task, verbal serial recall was also more impaired by another order recall task in Experiment 2. These findings are consistent with the hypothesis of modality-independent order coding. The implications for views on short-term recall and the multicomponent view of working memory are discussed.     

Auditory memory and the irrelevant sound effect: Further evidence for changing-state disruption

Four experiments investigate the hypothesis that irrelevant sound interferes with serial recall of auditory items in the same fashion as with visually presented items. In Experiment 1 an acoustically changing sequence of 30 irrelevant utterances was more disruptive than 30 repetitions of the same utterance (the changing-state effect; Jones, Madden, & Miles, 1992) whether the to-be-remembered items were visually or auditorily presented. Experiment 2 showed that two different utterances spoken once (a heterogeneous compound suffix; LeCompte & Watkins, 1995) produced less disruption to serial recall than 15 repetitions of the same sequence. Disruption thus depends on the number of sounds in the irrelevant sequence. In Experiments 3a and 3b the number of different sounds, the "token-set" size (Tremblay & Jones, 1998), in an irrelevant sequence also influenced the magnitude of disruption in both irrelevant sound and compound suffix conditions. The results support the view that the disruption of memory for auditory items, like memory for visually presented items, is dependent on the number of different irrelevant sounds presented and the size of the set from which these sounds are taken. Theoretical implications are discussed.     

Role of serial order in the impact of talker variability on short-term memory: testing a perceptual organization-based account

In two experiments, we examined the impact of the degree of match between sequential auditory perceptual organization processes and the demands of a short-term memory task (memory for order vs. item information). When a spoken sequence of digits was presented so as to promote its perceptual partitioning into two distinct streams by conveying it in alternating female (F) and male (M) voices (FMFMFMFM)—thereby disturbing the perception of true temporal order—recall of item order was greatly impaired (as compared to recall of item identity). Moreover, an order error type consistent with the formation of voice-based streams was committed more quickly in the alternating-voice condition (Exp. 1). In contrast, when the perceptual organization of the sequence mapped well onto an optimal two-group serial rehearsal strategy—by presenting the two voices in discrete clusters (FFFFMMMM)—order, but not item, recall was enhanced (Exp. 2). The results are consistent with the view that the degree of compatibility between perceptual and deliberate sequencing processes is a key determinant of serial short-term memory performance. Alternative accounts of talker variability effects in short-term memory, based on the concept of a dedicated phonological short-term store and a capacity-limited focus of attention, are also reviewed.     

Visual distraction and visuo‐spatial memory: A sandwich effect

The functional characteristics of visuo‐spatial serial memory and its sensitivity to irrelevant visual information are examined in the present study, through the investigation of the sandwich effect (e.g., ). The memory task was one of serial recall for the position of a sequence of seven spatially and temporally separated dots. The presence of irrelevant dots interpolated with to‐be‐remembered dots affected performance over most serial positions (Experiment 1) but that effect was significantly reduced when the interpolated dots were distinct from the to‐be‐remembered dots by colour and shape (Experiment 2). Parallels are made between verbal and spatial serial memory, and the reduction of the sandwich effect is discussed in terms of the contribution of perceptual organisation and attentional factors in short‐term memory.     

Transitional information in spatial serial memory: path characteristics affect recall performance

This study examined the role of stimulus characteristics in a visuospatial order reconstruction task in which participants were required to recall the order of sequences of spatial locations. The complexity of the to-be-remembered sequences, as measured by path crossing, path length, and angles, was found to affect serial memory, in terms of both recall accuracy and response times. The results demonstrate that not all sequences are remembered equally and that spatial characteristics of the sequences constitute an important variable in the understanding of visuospatial serial memory. More important, the data suggest that spatial path represents transitional information and that, as is the case in verbal serial memory, transitional information is of critical importance in serial memory.     

Rehearsal in serial memory for visual-spatial information: Evidence from eye movements

It is well established that rote rehearsal plays a key role in serial memory for lists of verbal items. Although a great deal of research has informed us about the nature of verbal rehearsal, much less attention has been devoted to rehearsal in serial memory for visual-spatial information. By using the dot task—a visual-spatial analogue of the classical verbal serial recall task—with delayed recall, performance and eyetracking data were recorded in order to establish whether visual-spatial rehearsal could be evidenced by eye movement. The use of eye movement as a form of rehearsal is detectable (Experiment 1), and it seems to contribute to serial memory performance over and above rehearsal based on shifts of spatial attention (Experiments 1 and 2).     

When distractors and to-be-remembered items compete for the control of action: a new perspective on serial memory for spatial information

In serial memory for spatial information, performance is impaired when distractors are interpolated between to-be-remembered (TBR) stimuli (Tremblay, Nicholls, Parmentier, & Jones, 2005). The so-called sandwich effect, combined with the use of eye tracking, served as a tool for examining the role of the oculomotor system in serial memory for spatial information. Participants had to recall the order in which sequences of TBR locations were presented. In some trials, to-be-ignored blue dots were presented after each TBR location. Our results show that response locations shift toward the location of the distractors, and this deviation is related to the eye movement deviation toward the distractor location. These results suggest that TBR and to-be-ignored locations are encoded onto a common map that could lie within the oculomotor system. Interference in memory for spatial information is interpreted in light of a model of oculomotor behavior (Godijn & Theeuwes, 2002b).     

前分类声音存储器对声调和情绪韵律的加工

采用系列位置回忆任务, 探讨作为声调语言的汉语普通话中声调及情绪信息是否具有近因及后缀效应, 从而揭示同为超音段信息的声调和情绪韵律在前分类声音存储器(Precategorical Acoustic Storage, PAS)中是否具有单独的表征, 及该表征可能受到哪些因素的影响。实验一和二分别考察了声调是否具有近因和后缀效应, 实验三和四分别考察了情绪信息是否具有近因和后缀效应。实验结果发现两者均在PAS存储器中有单独的表征, 但这种表征会受到一些因素的影响, 且受影响的方式不一样。研究结果表明作为超音段信息的声调和情绪信息在表征上的不稳定性和脆弱性, 及在短时记忆加工过程中的特殊性。     

Recency and suffix effects with immediate recall of olfactory stimuli

In contrast to our understanding of the immediate recall of auditory and visual material, little is known about the corresponding characteristics of short-term olfactory memory. The current study investigated the pattern of immediate serial recall and the associated suffix effect using olfactory stimuli. Subjects were trained initially to identify and name correctly nine different odours. Experiment 1 established an immediate correct recall span of approximately six items. In Experiment 2 participants recalled serially span equivalent lists which were followed by a visual, auditory, or olfactory suffix. Primacy was evident in the recall curves for all three suffix conditions. Recency, in contrast, was evident in the auditory and visual suffix conditions only; there was a strong suffix effect in the olfactory suffix condition. Experiment 3 replicated this pattern of effects using seven-item lists, and demonstrated that the magnitude of the recency and suffix effects obtained in the olfactory modality can equate to that obtained in the auditory modality. It is concluded that the pattern of recency and suffix effects in the olfactory modality is reliable, and poses difficulties for those theories that rely on the presence of a primary linguistic code, sound, or changing state as determinants of these effects in serial recall.     

Dissociable lexical and phonological influences on serial recognition and serial recall

The impact of the lexicality of memory items on memory performance was compared in two paradigms, serial recall and serial recognition. Experiments 1 to 3 tested 7- and 8-year-old children. Memory accuracy was only mildly impaired in lists containing nonwords compared with words in a serial recognition task involving judgements of whether the items in two sequences were in the same order (Experiment 1), although a substantial advantage for word over nonword items from the same stimulus pool was found in serial recall (Experiment 2). A stronger influence of lexicality on serial recall than serial recognition was further demonstrated in Experiments 3A and 3B, and in 4A and 4B using adult participants. These experiments also established comparable degrees of sensitivity to the phonological similarity of the memory sequences in the two paradigms. The phonological similarity effect in serial recall was found to arise from increased phoneme order errors, whereas the lexicality effect was due principally to the greater frequency of phoneme identity errors for nonwords. It is proposed that the lexicality effect originates in the redintegration of item information just prior to recall, and that this process is largely bypassed in serial recognition.     

Recency and suffix effects with immediate recall of olfactory stimuli

In contrast to our understanding of the immediate recall of auditory and visual material, little is known about the corresponding characteristics of short-term olfactory memory. The current study investigated the pattern of immediate serial recall and the associated suffix effect using olfactory stimuli. Subjects were trained initially to identify and name correctly nine different odours. Experiment 1 established an immediate correct recall span of approximately six items. In Experiment 2 participants recalled serially span equivalent lists which were followed by a visual, auditory, or olfactory suffix. Primacy was evident in the recall curves for all three suffix conditions. Recency, in contrast, was evident in the auditory and visual suffix conditions only; there was a strong suffix effect in the olfactory suffix condition. Experiment 3 replicated this pattern of effects using seven-item lists, and demonstrated that the magnitude of the recency and suffix effects obtained in the olfactory modality can equate to that obtained in the auditory modality. It is concluded that the pattern of recency and suffix effects in the olfactory modality is reliable, and poses difficulties for those theories that rely on the presence of a primary linguistic code, sound, or changing state as determinants of these effects in serial recall.     

Irrelevant speech effects and sequence learning

The irrelevant speech effect is the finding that performance on serial recall tasks is impaired by the presence of irrelevant background speech. According to the object-oriented episodic record (O-OER) model, this impairment is due to a conflict of order information from two different sources: the seriation of the irrelevant speech and the rehearsal of the order of the to-be-remembered items. We tested the model's prediction that irrelevant speech should impair performance on other tasks that involve seriation. Experiments 1 and 2 verified that both an irrelevant speech effect and a changing state effect would obtain in a between-subjects design in which a standard serial recall measure was used, allowing employment of a between-subjects design in subsequent experiments. Experiment 3 showed that performance on a sequence-learning task was impaired by the presence of irrelevant speech, and Experiment 4 verified that performance is worse when the irrelevant speech changes more (the changing state effect). These findings support the prediction made by the O-OER model that one essential component to the irrelevant speech effect is serial order information.     

A test of precategorical and attentional explanations of speech suffix interference

It is well-known that a redundant item or “stimulus suffix”, which does not have to be recalled, which is spoken, and which terminates the presentation of a beyond span-length sequence of to-be-remembered (TBR) spoken items, will generate considerable interference in immediate serial recall. Previous work has established that speech suffix interference is not influenced by a number of intrinsic attributes of the suffix. A limitation of this work, however, is the fact that in each study there has been little if any disparity between TBR sequence and suffix in terms of extrinsic attributes. Experiment I extends this work and showed that at least one intrinsic attribute of the suffix (personal significance) has no effect on suffix interference when there is also a marked disparity between TBR sequence and suffix in terms of one specific extrinsic attribute (spatial location). Experiment II simply served to eliminate one possible artifactual explanation of this finding. The result appears to have some theoretical importance since it is inconsistent with Kahneman's (1973) attentional account of suffix interference and with one interpretation of a precategorical hypothesis due to Morton, Crowder and Prussin (1971).     

Eye movements and serial memory for visual-spatial information: does time spent fixating contribute to recall?

This research investigated the nature of encoding and its contribution to serial recall for visual-spatial information. In order to do so, we examined the relationship between fixation duration and recall performance. Using the dot task--a series of seven dots spatially distributed on a monitor screen is presented sequentially for immediate recall--performance and eye-tracking data were recorded during the presentation of the to-be-remembered items. When participants were free to move their eyes at their will, both fixation durations and probability of correct recall decreased as a function of serial position. Furthermore, imposing constant durations of fixation across all serial positions had a beneficial impact (though relatively small) on item but not order recall. Great care was taken to isolate the effect of fixation duration from that of presentation duration. Although eye movement at encoding contributes to immediate memory, it is not decisive in shaping serial recall performance. Our results also provide further evidence that the distinction between item and order information, well-established in the verbal domain, extends to visual-spatial information.     

The importance of semantic similarity to the irrelevant speech effect

Irrelevant speech disrupts immediate recall of a short sequence of items. Salamé and Baddeley (1982) found a very small and nonsignificant increase in the irrelevant speech effect when the speech comprised items semantically identical to the to-be-remembered items, leading subsequent researchers to conclude that semantic similarity plays no role in the irrelevant speech effect. Experiment 1 showed that strong free associates of the to-be-remembered items disrupted serial recall to a greater extent than words that were dissimilar to the to-be-remembered items. Experiment 2 showed that this same pattern of disruption in a free recall task. Theoretical implications of these findings are discussed.