Cognitive complexity and the similarity-attraction paradigm

The study investigated the role of cognitive complexity as a moderator of the similarity-attraction relationship described by Byrne (1971). Subjects conducted face-to-face interviews with confederates who played roles as job applicants. Similarity-dissimilarity was manipulated by the confederate roles, as well as by the information given the subjects in accordance with the procedures described by Byrne (1971). The situation was viewed as one in which judgments were made about a complex, multidimensional stimulus. Information received about another person in an interview setting was viewed as consisting of different dimensions to be assessed by the perceiver. The hypothesis was tested and confirmed that cognitively complex judges were more likely than simple judges to perceive and evaluate similarity/dissimilarity in others. Thus, complex judges evaluated similar applicants more positively than dissimilar applicants, while no differences were found for simple judges. Cognitive complexity thus appears to moderate the “Law of Attraction” described by Byrne (1971).     

The importance of inner and outer body parts attitudes in the self-concept of late adolescents

The differential roles of inner and outer body parts attitudes in predicting the self-concepts of late adolescents (107 female and 72 male undergraduates) were assessed in order to test derivations from Erikson's notions (1964) about sex differences in the import of inner and out body “space” for personality. To assess knowledge about inner body space, subjects drew and labeled their internal body parts within an asexual frontal outline figure. Affect associated with internal and external body parts was assessed by rating 36 body characteristics in terms of their importance in making subjects attractive, effective people. Subjects responded also to a short self-concept scale. Females demonstrated greater knowledge of their inner body and attached generally higher levels of importance to their internal (and external) body parts than did males. However, completely opposite to the tested Eriksonian notions, inner body parts attitudes predicted self-concepts for males, but not for females. Moreover, more external than internal body parts were significant predictors of females' self-concepts, and the former parts accounted for more variance in self-concept than the latter ones. The results are interpreted to speak against theories which attempt to dichotomize the source of sex differences in personality development into either biologically or societally based contributions.     

The relationship between mothers' and daughters' sex-role attitudes and self-concepts in three types of family environment

Assuming that mothers are significant others in daughters' socialization, this study was conducted to determine if significant relationships exist between mothers and daughters regarding sex-role attitudes and self-concepts. Three types of families were sampled: those where the mother was a full-time homemaker, those where she was employed because of economic necessity, and those where she was employed for personal and professional fulfillment. The results indicated significant relationships between mothers' and daughters' attitudes toward marriage, children, and careers, but not self-concepts. Differences were also found between the three groups of mothers and daughters. Mothers who are involved in careers that are personally salient differ from mothers who are employed because of economic necessity and mothers who are full-time homemakers.     

Social insulation, self-complexity, and social attraction: A theory chain

In a theory chain extending Byrne's theory of social attraction, links are described between breadth of social interaction and complexity of the self-concept as well as between complexity of the self-concept and social attraction. In the first series of studies, it was shown that communication-handicapped adolescents and physically handicapped children, as well as terminally ill patients, indicate lower self-complexity. In a second series of studies, it was found that persons with more complex self-concepts identify more closely with others, perceive themselves as more similar to objectively dissimilar others, and are more popular sociometrically.     

The Effects of Dysphoria and Personality on Negative Self-Referent Attitudes and Perceptions of the Attitudes of Others

The cognitive model of depression posits that depressed individuals harbor more dysfunctional self-referent attitudes, but little is known about how depressed individuals perceive the attitudes and perceptions of others in their social arena. This study examined whether dysphoric individuals perceive others to hold equally negative attitudes about themselves, and whether such perceptions depend on sociotropic (i.e., highly invested in social approval and relationship success) and autonomous (i.e., highly invested in vocational or academic achievement and goal attainment) personality styles. A sample of undergraduate students (N = 197) was recruited, and after the assessment of their depression symptoms and personality style, participants read vignettes that described negative scenarios, and imagined that these scenarios occurred to themselves or the general university student. After reading each vignette, participants also rated their agreement with a number of statements that assessed dysfunctional attitudes. Results indicated that elevated dysphoria (i.e., showing signs of depression) scores were positively associated with dysfunctional self-referent attitudes. Further, moderational analyses examining the interaction of sociotropy and dysphoria did not support the hypothesis that individuals higher on dysphoria and sociotropy were less likely to perceive others as harboring negative attitudes about themselves in comparison to those with elevated dysphoria and lower levels of sociotropy. Last, individuals showing elevated dysphoria and higher scores on subdomains of autonomy were more likely to perceive others as exhibiting negative attitudes about themselves than those with low levels of the trait. These findings, their implications, and strengths and limitations of the current investigation are further discussed.     

Self-labeling by educably mentally retarded high school students in their mainstream and special education classes

Educably mentally retarded (EMR) students and nonhandicapped students from their mainstream classes completed semantic differential ratings of a stereotypic popular teen-ager, juvenile delinquent, and special education student. Subjects also rated their global self-concepts and situation-specific self-concepts within the mainstream and the special class settings. Ratings were done at the beginning (Time 1) and the end (Time 2) of a semester. Results showed that mainstream classes did not "de-label" EMR students. Within the mainstream class, the number of EMR students who saw themselves as similar to a special education student significantly increased over time. Moreover, at Time 2, EMR students were more likely to think of themselves as similar to a special education student in their mainstream class than in their special education class. However, EMR subjects' global self-concepts did not change. Implications for mainstreaming are discussed.     

Contributions to Global Self-Esteem: The Role of Importance Attached to Self-Concepts Associated with the Five-Factor Model

Previous research has attempted to clarify the relations that one's self-concepts have with one's global self-esteem. One hypothesis that has received the most attention to date is the view that characteristic attributes that an individual regards as especially important for his or her self-concepts exert the greatest influence on self-esteem. In an investigation of this hypothesis, 375 college undergraduates completed measures of global self-esteem as well as rating scales that assessed self-concepts and the importance attached to these self-concepts in the maintenance of self-esteem. The self-concept and importance domains examined corresponded to the five-factor model (FFM) personality dimensions. Consistent with previous research, importance ratings attached to self-concepts were not found to moderate the relation between self-concepts and self-esteem. Rather, ratings on self-concepts alone accounted for a substantial proportion of variance (53.3%) in self-esteem scores. Bivariate correlations based on FFM dimension scores and self-esteem scores revealed consistent positive associations. Hierarchical regression analyses indicated that among the FFM dimensions, self-concept ratings for emotional stability (vs neuroticism), extraversion, and agreeableness significantly predicted self-esteem.     

The Development of Discrimination of form and Area

The Time Competence Scale from the Personal Orientation Inventory was administered to 28 male and 47 female college students who then described their real and ideal self-concepts using the Interpersonal Check List. Self-actualizing individuals manifested greater congruence between their real and ideal self-concepts than did nonactualizing persons. Dominance was seen as a significantly more desirable integrative mechanism by the nonactualizing subjects. There was a nonsignificant trend in the desirability of an increase in acceptance as a function of the degree of self-actualization. Findings are discussed in terms of individuals' perceptions of congruence with their environment.     

Roommate Compatibility: Is There An Ideal Relationship?1

Three theories of interpersonal attraction were tested for their ability to predict roommates' compatibility. The similarity hypothesis (that we are attracted to and compatible with people who are similar to our self-concepts) received moderate support; the social desirability hypothesis (that we are attracted to and compatible with people who possess socially desirable traits) received scant support. The ideal hypothesis (that we are attracted to and compatible with people who are similar to our ideals) received strong support. The utility of these theories in terms of preinteractionally matching students in order to maximize compatibility was found to be minimal because it could not be assumed that students peiceive their roommates in the same manner as their roommates perceive themselves.     

Factors Associated With Participating in a Romantic Relationship in a Work Environment1

Questionnaires were administered to graduate students employed by a large university to assess part of Pierce, Byrne, and Aguinis's (1996) model of workplace romance. Based on data from 297 respondents, results indicate that (a) females held less favorable attitudes toward romance and sexual intimacy at work than did males, (b) participating in a romantic relationship with a member of the same organization was positively associated with a participant's self-appraised job performance, and (c) consistent with an affective spillover hypothesis, degree of loving feelings for a current romantic partner was positively associated with an individual's own level of intrinsic work motivation, job involvement, and satisfaction with his or her type of work. Results are discussed in light of Pierce et al.'s (1996) model, and potential study limitations are addressed.     

On the consistency between attitudes and behavior: Look to the method of attitude formation

A field study and a laboratory experiment were conducted to test the hypothesis that the method by which an attitude was formed is a crucial variable affecting attitude-behavior consistency. It was predicted that people who form their attitudes on the basis of direct behavioral interaction with the attitude object will demonstrate significantly greater attitude-behavior consistency than individuals whose attitudes were formed by other means. In the field study, students with direct prior experience with a housing crisis demonstrated greater consistency between their attitudes and behavioral attempts to alleviate the crisis than did students with similar attitudes but without prior direct experience. In the laboratory experiment, subjects who indicated their attitude toward a variety of puzzle types after working examples of each demonstrated greater consistency between these attitudes and subsequent behavior in a free play situation than subjects with similar attitudes formed on the basis of information given by the experimenter. It was suggested that direct behavioral experience produces an attitude which is more clearly, confidently, and stably maintained than an attitude formed through more indirect means.     

Psychological androgyny and ego development

Psychological androgyny has often been described as associated with increased behavioral flexibility, with the availability of skills in both traditionally masculine and feminine areas. Ego development has been described as involving an increasing differentiation of one's perception of self, of behavior, and of one's thoughts and feelings, as well as an increasing ability to integrate these differentiated aspects. We therefore predicted that androgynous individuals would show higher levels of ego development than sex-typed individuals, who would in turn be higher than undifferentiated subjects. Eighty-four undergraduate and graduate students completed the Washington University Sentence Completion Test and the Personality Research Form AN-DRO scale. No evidence of a relation between these measures was found. Several other negative findings have recently been reported, using other sex role measures. It appears that ego development, as currently measured, is not associated with sex-related self-concepts, as typically measured, though it may be associated with more androgynous sex role expectations of others, and with self-perceptions of agency and communion. Measures of sex-related self-concepts that provide separate scores for positive and negative attributes should be employed in future studies.This report is based on a thesis conducted by the first author in partial fulfillment of requirements for a master's degree in psychology, under the supervision of the second author. The authors are grateful to Leo Goldberger, Bob Holt, and an anonymous reviewer for helpful comments on an earlier draft of this report.     

Causal attributions and blame: associations with mothers' adjustment to the birth of a child with Down syndrome

The main purpose of this study is to explore the associations between causal attributions to others, blaming others and mothers' adjustment to the birth of a child with Down syndrome (DS). Participants (n?=?214) rated causal attributions to others and blaming others, and completed five measures of adjustment: anger, anxiety, depression, parenting stress, and attitudes towards the child. The adjustment of three groups of mothers was compared: (i) those who made no attributions to others (ii) those who made causal attributions but did not blame, and (iii) those who blamed others. Four years after the births of their children with DS, 16% of mothers blamed others and 17% made causal attributions but did not blame others for this outcome. Those who blamed others had higher levels of anger, anxiety, depression, parenting stress and more negative attitudes towards their children with DS than did those who made causal attributions but did not blame, and those who made who made no attributions to others. The adjustment of the latter two groups did not differ. Investigating blame rather than causal attributions may be a more fruitful area for future research aimed at understanding and facilitating adjustment to illness and other negative life events.     

Attibution of attitudes to speakers and listeners under assigned-behavior conditions: Does behavior engulf the field?

A conceptual replication of the assigned-behavior conditions of previous research in attitude attribution was conducted. Participants made attitude attributions about themselves and also about others who had either given, listened to, or not been exposed to either a proattitudinal or counterattitudinal essay. The position adopted in the essay significantly affected the attitudes attributed to those assigned to deliver the essay. Essay position had an equally strong effect upon attitudes attributed to those who merely listened to the essay, however. Thus, the fact that the actor had delivered a particular assigned essay apparently did not in itself convey information to the observers about the actor's attitudes. Experimental results suggested that essay direction affects attitudes attitudes attributed to others in an assigned-behavior setting because observers use their own attitudes to infer the attitudes of others. Since observers' own attitudes change after exposure to different essays, they attribute different attitudes to others.     

Perceived consensus influences intergroup behavior and stereotype accessibility

Past research has demonstrated the powerful influence other people have on the thoughts and behaviors of individuals. However, the study of intergroup attitudes has focused primarily on the influence of direct exposure to out-group members as determinants of stereotypes and prejudice. Two experiments tested the hypothesis that learning that others share one's intergroup beliefs influences intergroup attitudes and behavior as well as stereotype representation. Experiment 1 demonstrated that learning that one's beliefs are shared or not shared with others influences attitudes, behavior, and the strength of the attitude-behavior relationship. Experiment 2 demonstrated a potential mechanism for such effects by showing that learning about whether others share one's stereotypes influences the accessibility of those stereotypes and related stereotypes.     

Asymmetrical attention allocation to dissimilar and similar attitudes

Evaluations of others are sometimes influenced more by their dissimilar than similar attitudes. The authors investigated this similarity–dissimilarity asymmetry at the level of stimulus processing. In a variant of the Stroop task in Experiment 1 (N = 50), dissimilar attitudes of the participants interfered more with their color-naming performance than did similar attitudes. In a dual-task paradigm of Experiment 2 (N = 92), a greater attention allocation to dissimilar than similar attitudes disappeared when the cognitive load was low, but not when it was high. Findings illustrated the similarity–dissimilarity asymmetry at the level of stimulus processing, and presented the asymmetry as another case of the fundamental positive–negative asymmetry. Implications and alternative interpretations of these findings are discussed.     

How affective states, task difficulty, and self-concepts influence the formation and consequences of performance expectancies

Positive versus negative affective states are associated with the use of broad versus specific knowledge structures. We predicted that specific self-concepts and task difficulty would affect performance expectancies only for individuals in a negative mood; for individuals in a positive mood, only the general self-concept, but not task difficulty, would affect performance expectancies. In an experiment, we manipulated task difficulty and mood, and we assessed self-concepts, performance expectancies, and task performance. The expected interactions for the formation of performance expectancies (mood × general self-concept, mood × specific self-concept, mood × difficulty) were found. Concerning the consequences of performance expectancies, we predicted that expectancies would affect actual performance only if the task was difficult and if task difficulty was taken into account when the expectancy is generated. This hypothesis was supported: The relationship between performance expectancies and actual performance was significant only for difficult tasks and given negative mood.     

Cultural threat and perceived realistic group conflict as dual predictors of prejudice

Recent research has focused on how perceived intergroup similarity influences stereotyping and prejudice. Very little is known, however, regarding how the quality or type of similarity influences intergroup relations. Presented is a methodology that allows one to manipulate the quality of perceived intergroup similarity. This methodology is used to test contrasting predictions about how perceptions of intergroup similarity on self-stereotyped interpersonal and work-related traits predict attitudes towards immigrants. Predictions were derived from cultural threat and perceived realistic group conflict theories. Some participants were asked to rate how similar they perceived their in-group was to Mexican immigrants, whereas others were asked to evaluate how the groups differed on the given traits. Control participants evaluated themselves on the given traits. Participants were presented with either interpersonal traits or work related traits as stimuli. The main dependent measures were a perceived realistic conflict scale, a prejudice scale, and a stereotyping scale. All three scales used Mexican immigrants as the target category. When interpersonal traits were made salient, contrast comparisons led to more negative attitudes towards immigrants, supporting a cultural threat hypothesis. When work-related traits were made salient, similarity comparisons led to more prejudice and more negative attitudes towards immigrants, supporting a perceived realistic conflict hypothesis. Thus, a perceived threat to either the cultural norm or economic well being led to more negative attitudes towards immigrants. Results are discussed for their relevance to models of intergroup relations.