The development of sexual identity

The development of sexual identity was studied in 686 individuals, using a fantasy measure of sexual identity that does not depend on learned sex-role stereotypes. The results showed a marked differentiation between the sexes at pre-adolescence, a loss of differentiation during the freshman year of college that most closely resembled the lack of differentiation in sexual identity of preschool children, and a reemergence of a clear sexual identity during the last years of college. Possible biological, social context, and psychodynamic-maturational explanations for this pattern of development are discussed.     

A measure of racial identity in African American adolescents: the development of the Multidimensional Inventory of Black Identity--Teen

The Multidimensional Inventory of Black Identity--Teen (MIBI--T) is designed to assess the 3 cross-situationally stable dimensions (centrality, regard, and ideology) of the Multidimensional Model of Racial Identity (MMRI; R. M. Sellers, M. A. Smith, J. N. Shelton, S. A. J. Rowley, & T. M. Chavous, 1998) within teenagers. Adolescent responses (n= 489) to the MIBI--T were subjected to several analyses to evaluate the psychometric character of the measure. Findings indicated that the MIBI--T represents a valid framework for African American adolescents. Its internal structure is consistent with the conceptual framework of the MMRI, and findings support its construct validity. Results also indicate model invariance across grade level and gender, as well as suggest evidence of predictive validity. Further information about the MIBI--T and the full set of items are presented.     

Social representation and social identity in the black sheep effect

This study tests a new integration of central core theory with subjective group dynamics theory. Specifically, we hypothesized that the type of opinions shared within a group (central vs. peripheral; i.e. central core theory) can moderate the typical processes of the black sheep effect (i.e. subjective group dynamics theory). Our study focused on students expressing opinions with regard to their social representation of studying. We predicted that an in‐group member expressing an opinion against central opinions of the group (but not against peripheral ones) would be judged more negatively than an out‐group member expressing the same opinion. In line with central core theory, the results showed that central opinions, but not peripheral opinions, lead to the typical processes of the black sheep effect. Our findings show that the central elements of a social representation are key to defining the social identity of a group. Future research should thus focus on understanding the socio‐representational nature of cognitions involved in intra‐group and inter‐group relations.     

The development of ethnic identity during adolescence

The development of ethnic identity is a critical facet of adolescence, particularly for adolescents of color. In order to examine the developmental trajectory of ethnic identity, African American, Latino American, and European American early and middle adolescents (N = 420) were assessed over 3 years. Two components of ethnic identity were assessed--group-esteem was found to rise for both early and middle adolescents; exploration rose for middle adolescents. African Americans and Latino Americans were lower in group-esteem but have greater increases than European Americans, particularly across a school transition. The course of ethnic identity development during early and middle adolescence, the role of school context, and the variability in developmental trajectories among racial and ethnic groups are discussed.     

Religious identity development of adolescents in religious affiliated schools. A theoretical foundation for empirical research

The question, how religious affiliated schools for secondary education shape religious education and what effects this education has on the religious identity development of pupils, is relevant in a time when the position of religious affiliated schools is highly disputable. In earlier empirical research on religious identity development of adolescence, hardly any attention was paid to the theoretical framework of this question. Therefore, connections are sought with the identity theory of Erikson and with operationalizations of his theory by Marcia and others. The key concepts are ‘exploration’ and ‘commitment’. Religious identity development is seen from a pragmatic perspective in which the transactional relation of individuals and environment is stressed.     

少数民族青少年民族认同发展理论模型及其功能

青少年民族认同发展的三阶段理论模型和黑人民族认同发展模型的提出,为研究少数民族青少年的民族认同发展提供了一定的依据。少数民族青少年民族认同的发展与应付能力,自我效能感等因素有积极的相关,在一定程度上可以提高自尊,比如消极民族刻板印象的影响,增加心理归属感等。而且可以促发少数民族青少年亲社会态度的形成。     

Ethnic group preferences and the evaluation of ethnic identity among adolescents in The Netherlands.

The relationship between the evaluation of ethnic identity and ethnic group preferences among Dutch and that among ethnic minority adolescents was examined. It was predicted that a more positive attitude toward one's own ethnic identity would be associated with a higher level of ingroup preference. This prediction was confirmed, and this led to the question of how inter-ethnic relations and a positive ethnic identity could be stimulated simultaneously. Not only the ingroup aspect of ethnic group relations was studied but also the outgroup aspect. As members of the high-status group, the Dutch subjects showed a higher level of ingroup preference, compared with ethnic minorities. Also, own-group identification and own-group-oriented patterns of preferences among the Dutch subjects were found to be accompanied by the rejection of minority groups. No such tendency was found among adolescents from ethnic minorities.     

Central issue importance as a function of gender and ethnicity

A recent theoretical model of centrality (Bernstein, 1987; Bernstein, Hofmann, Santiago, & Diebolt, 1989) suggests that the importance attached to certain “central issues” may increase the vulnerability of individuals to distress and depression, and may explain the differential rates of depression among gender, racial, and ethnic groups. The present study was designed to examine the importance of central issues as reported by Anglo, Black, and Hispanic men and women (N=169). Multivariate analyses revealed significant gender, ethnicity, and gender X ethnicity effects. Specifically, women considered Intimacy significantly more important than did men, whereas men attached more importance than women to Affiliation. Anglos rated Achievement significantly higher than did Hispanics and Blacks; Hispanics considered Affiliation more important than the other two groups; and Blacks considered Intimacy the least important among the groups. Moreover, Hispanic men attributed significantly greater importance to Change, Adventure, and Control, whereas Hispanic women attached the least significance among all the groups to Control. The results are discussed in terms of cultural influences on sex role orientation and central issues, and the process by which culture and ethnicity may be related to vulnerability to depression and distress.     

Self-esteem and the evaluation of ethnic identity among Turkish and Dutch adolescents in The Netherlands

A nationwide sample of Turkish and Dutch adolescents was used to answer two questions. Do Turkish youths in the Netherlands demonstrate negative effects of minority status on global self-esteem or specific components of self-esteem? What is the meaning of ethnic identity for the self-concept of these youngsters? The results showed that Turkish adolescents had a lower score for global self-esteem and a higher score for three components--academic ability, sports achievements, and evaluation of one's ethnic identity. However, in terms of the percentage of variance explained, the differences were very small. The results also showed that ethnic identity was a more salient and more important aspect of self-concept for the Turkish subjects than for the Dutch. It was not, however, a dominant component of their self-concept: The other components had a greater impact on global self-esteem. Body image was the most important component in this respect.     

Central issue importance as a function of gender and ethnicity

A recent theoretical model of centrality (Bernstein, 1987; Bernstein, Hofmann, Santiago, & Diebolt, 1989) suggests that the importance attached to certain “central issues” may increase the vulnerability of individuals to distress and depression, and may explain the differential rates of depression among gender, racial, and ethnic groups. The present study was designed to examine the importance of central issues as reported by Anglo, Black, and Hispanic men and women (N=169). Multivariate analyses revealed significant gender, ethnicity, and gender X ethnicity effects. Specifically, women considered Intimacy significantly more important than did men, whereas men attached more importance than women to Affiliation. Anglos rated Achievement significantly higher than did Hispanics and Blacks; Hispanics considered Affiliation more important than the other two groups; and Blacks considered Intimacy the least important among the groups. Moreover, Hispanic men attributed significantly greater importance to Change, Adventure, and Control, whereas Hispanic women attached the least significance among all the groups to Control. The results are discussed in terms of cultural influences on sex role orientation and central issues, and the process by which culture and ethnicity may be related to vulnerability to depression and distress.     

社会身份重要性和社会认同对群体参照效应的影响

研究选取四个参照条件（国家、民族、性别、职业）,探讨个体内部的社会身份重要性、以及个体对其不同社会身份的社会认同度对群体参照效应的影响。结果表明,在个体内部,社会身份重要性越重要,相应的群体参照效应也越大,而社会认同的高低对群体参照效应的大小没有显著影响。这表明在个体的自我内部,不同的社会身份是按照重要性来排列,越重要身份越靠近个体自我概念的核心,而且这种重要性也影响着集体自我相关信息的认知加工。     

The importance of parents and other caregivers to the resilience of high-risk adolescents

Relationships between 43 high-risk adolescents and their caregivers were examined qualitatively. Parents and other formal and informal caregivers such as youth workers and foster parents were found to exert a large influence on the behaviors that bolster mental health among high-risk youth marginalized by poverty, social stigma, personal and physical characteristics, ethnicity, and poor social or academic performance. Participants' accounts of their intergenerational relationships with caregivers showed that teenagers seek close relationships with adults in order to negotiate for powerful self-constructions as resilient. High-risk teens say they want the adults in their lives to serve as an audience in front of whom they can perform the identities they construct both inside and outside their homes. This pattern was evident even among youth who presented as being more peer-than family-oriented. The implications of these findings to interventions with caregivers and teens is discussed.     

The importance of inner and outer body parts attitudes in the self-concept of late adolescents

The differential roles of inner and outer body parts attitudes in predicting the self-concepts of late adolescents (107 female and 72 male undergraduates) were assessed in order to test derivations from Erikson's notions (1964) about sex differences in the import of inner and out body “space” for personality. To assess knowledge about inner body space, subjects drew and labeled their internal body parts within an asexual frontal outline figure. Affect associated with internal and external body parts was assessed by rating 36 body characteristics in terms of their importance in making subjects attractive, effective people. Subjects responded also to a short self-concept scale. Females demonstrated greater knowledge of their inner body and attached generally higher levels of importance to their internal (and external) body parts than did males. However, completely opposite to the tested Eriksonian notions, inner body parts attitudes predicted self-concepts for males, but not for females. Moreover, more external than internal body parts were significant predictors of females' self-concepts, and the former parts accounted for more variance in self-concept than the latter ones. The results are interpreted to speak against theories which attempt to dichotomize the source of sex differences in personality development into either biologically or societally based contributions.