Protégé selection by mentors: Contributing individual and organizational factors

Protégé selection was examined in a laboratory experiment and a field study of experienced mentors. The results from both studies indicated that protégé willingness to learn was a critical component of protégé selection. Results of the field study also revealed that organizational rewards for developing others related to the influence protégé ability and willingness to learn had on protégé selection. Finally, the field study indicated that mentor motives for mentoring others differentially related to the importance protégé ability and willingness to learn had on protégé selection. Specifically, mentors motivated by self-enhancement were more likely to indicate that protégé ability was important in their selection of protégé, whereas mentors motivated by intrinsic satisfaction were more likely to indicate that protégé willingness to learn was important in their selection of protégé.     

Effects of Race, Gender, Perceived Similarity, and Contact on Mentor Relationships

This study examined the effects of similarity, both actual (race and gender) and perceived, and amount of contact between mentor and protégé on the quality of mentor relationships. Mentor relationship quality was measured by liking, satisfaction, intended retention, and degree of psychosocial and instrumental functions experienced by the protégé. The participants were 104 summer intern protégés and their volunteer staff mentors employed at a large West coast media organization. Protégés were randomly assigned to one of two types of mentor pairings—same and different race mentors. Results indicate that liking, satisfaction, and contact with mentor were higher when protégés’ perceived themselves to be more similar to their mentors. Actual race pairing was related to protégés’ perceptions of the amount of career support and to mentors’ liking of protégés.     

Protégé and mentor self-disclosure: Levels and outcomes within formal mentoring dyads in a corporate context

This study examined the role of self-disclosure within protégé/mentor dyads in formal mentoring partnerships within a corporate context as a means of learning more about specific relationship processes that may enhance the positive outcomes of mentoring. While both protégés and mentors self-disclosed in their relationships, protégés disclosed at a higher level than mentors. Protégé self-disclosure, but not mentor self-disclosure, was related to protégé outcomes including mentoring received, relationship satisfaction, and positive influence of mentoring. The study contributes to a mentoring literature that has become more interested in examining mentoring relationship micro-processes from both the protégé and mentor perspective.     

Comparison of Traditional, Step-Ahead, and Peer Mentoring on Protégés' Support, Satisfaction, and Perceptions of Career Success: A Social Exchange Perspective

This study applied social exchange theory as a conceptual framework to examine the effectiveness of various types of mentors and mentor support on protégés' satisfaction with their mentors, jobs, and perceived career success. Participants were 142 ethnically diverse protégés in informal mentoring relationships. It was found that role modeling, reciprocity, and vocational support predicted protégés' satisfaction with their mentors. Vocational support was a significant predictor of protégés' job satisfaction and perceived career success. Protégés were more satisfied with, had higher job satisfaction, and reported that traditional mentors provided significantly more vocational and role modeling support than peer or step-ahead mentors.     

The Role of Formal Mentoring on Business Success and Self-Esteem in Participants of a New Business Start-Up Program

The current study investigated the relationship between career-related mentoring, psychosocial mentoring, business success, and self-esteem in participants of a program that was designed to assist in the establishment of a new business. Seventy-seven protégés and their matched mentors were included in the study. A comparison of mentor and protégé perceptions revealed that mentors considered themselves to provide higher levels of psychosocial support than did the protégés. Protégé perceptions of business success were predicted by the frequency of mentor contact and the level of career-related support provided by their mentor.     

Protégé anxiety attachment and feedback in mentoring relationships

A model focused on protégé anxious attachment and feedback in mentoring relationships was tested with a sample of matched doctoral student protégés and their faculty mentors. Results show that protégé anxious attachment was associated with less feedback seeking and less feedback acceptance. Protégé feedback acceptance was associated with both the quality and frequency of feedback provided by the mentor. Frequency, but not quality of mentor feedback, was associated with protégé scholarly productivity. Results underscore the value of focusing on specific behavioral aspects of the mentoring process.     

Mentor commitment in formal mentoring relationships

This research examined the role of mentor commitment relative to protégé perceptions of relationship quality within formal mentoring programs. Based on a matched sample of 91 mentors and protégés, the results indicated that mentor commitment related positively to protégé reports of relationship quality. This relationship was stronger for male protégés than for female protégés. The results indicated that protégés reported higher quality relationships when mentors underestimated their commitment to the relationship relative to the protégés estimate of mentor commitment. Suggestions for future research are offered.     

My Mentor,My Self: Antecedents and Outcomes of Perceived Similarity in Mentoring Relationships

This study examines the antecedents and outcomes of perceived similarity in mentoring relationships in a sample of 82 matched mentor-protégé dyads. Polynomial regression analyses were used to examine the association between actual and perceived similarity. Protégés were more likely to see themselves as similar to their mentors when they and their mentors shared either higher or lower levels of attachment security. However, sharing similar levels of relational self-construal was unrelated to protégés perceptions of similarity with their mentors. Path analyses revealed that protégés reported more organizational and professional commitment when they saw themselves as similar to their mentors, and that these associations were mediated by protégés’ reports of their mentors providing role modeling functions. These findings suggest that the effects of actual mentor-protégé similarity on perceptions of similarity may depend on the shared attribute, and provide further evidence of the importance of perceived similarity to not only mentoring relationships, but also to organizations.     

Mentoring in academia: An examination of the experiences of protégés of color

This study examines the mentoring experiences of African, Hispanic, and Native-American protégés in an academic setting. In doing so we consider whether surface-level and deep-level similarity are related to relationship satisfaction and perceived levels of support. Specifically, we consider whether for protégés of color, having a mentor who is also of color and/or who is perceived as having similar values is positively associated with satisfaction and support. Additionally, we examine from the perspective of those who mentor protégés of color, whether their relationship satisfaction is associated with having a protégé who is similar or different with regards to race/ethnicity and perceived value similarity. Finally, we consider the mediating roles of interpersonal comfort and commitment. Our results indicate that graduate students of color receive more psychosocial and instrumental support from, and are more satisfied with mentors of color. Further, interpersonal comfort and commitment mediate the relationships between surface and deep-level similarity and mentoring outcomes.     

Mentor status,occupational context,and protégé career outcomes: Differential returns for males and females

We report two studies examining the moderating effects of mentor status and protégé gender, along with the moderating role of occupational context, in the relationship of mentoring with protégé career outcomes. Our research replicates and extends previous findings, especially those by Ramaswami et al. (2010b). Results from Study 1 indicated that business school alumni with senior-male mentors earned more compensation than those with no mentors. Additionally, a 3-way interaction (protégé gender × senior-male mentor × occupation type) indicated that the senior-male mentor effect for compensation was especially prominent for females in male-gendered occupation types. Study 2, conducted in an aerospace manufacturing firm comprising both a male-gendered occupation and industry context, confirmed mentor-status by protégé gender interaction for compensation. Female protégés with senior mentors received more compensation than females with no mentors, and also more compensation than males with senior mentors. In contrast, protégés with “other” (not senior) mentors received less compensation than those with no mentors, with this negative effect being especially strong for females. Taken as a whole, these results confirm the importance of mentor status for protégé career success. The results also underscore the importance of considering both mentor attributes and work context in understanding male and female protégés' career returns from mentoring.     

Mentor and protégé predictors and outcomes of mentoring in a formal mentoring program

This study examines the predictors and outcomes of mentoring received by participants of a 12-month formal mentoring program. Based on relationship theory, we examined how the personality of the individuals in the mentoring dyad, their perceived similarity, and mentor perceived support for mentoring contributed to relationship outcomes. The study includes data from both mentors and protégés at the program launch, midway through the program, and at program close. Mentor proactivity was related to more career and psychosocial mentoring; protégé’s perceptions of similarity to the mentor was related to more psychosocial mentoring. More mentoring was related to positive protégé and mentor outcomes, including improved protégé career clarity over the duration of the study.     

The Mentoring Relationship Challenges Scale: The impact of mentoring stage, type, and gender

The current study investigated the role of relational challenges as reported by 309 protégés in various stages and types of mentoring relationships. The Mentoring Relationship Challenges Scale (MRCS) was newly constructed using the results of an earlier qualitative study (Ensher & Murphy, 2005). The scale measured three factors of relational challenges which were: Demonstrating Commitment and Resilience, Measuring Up to a Mentor's Standards, and Career Goal and Risk Orientation. The results demonstrated that with respect to mentoring stages, those protégés in the beginning stages of their relationships reported experiencing significantly fewer challenges related to Demonstrating Commitment and Resilience than those in the mature or ending stages of the relationship. Also, it was found that the type of mentoring relationship (traditional, step-ahead, or peer) affected the prevalence of the three types of challenges. Protégés in peer relationships reported significantly fewer of all three types of challenges than those in step-ahead or traditional relationships. However, contrary to predictions, there were no significant differences found between those in informal versus those in formal mentoring relationships. As expected, protégé and mentor gender interacted significantly. Female protégés reported experiencing significantly fewer challenges related to the factor of Measuring Up to a Mentor's Standards, than did male protégés. Also, female protégés reported experiencing a significantly higher degree of relational challenges related to Career Goal and Risk Orientation from their male mentors than from their female mentors. Finally, after controlling for perceptions of career and psychosocial support for protégés in traditional mentoring relationships, two of the three relational challenges factors remained significant and explained a significant amount of variance in overall satisfaction with the mentoring relationship. This suggests that relational challenges, at least for traditional mentoring relationships, serve as an important mechanism to impact overall relationship satisfaction.     

An Investigation of the Effects of Protégé Gender on Responses to Mentoring

Review of the literature on mentoring at work reveals a paucity of studies investigating gender differences in responses to mentoring. Relations of mentoring status and protégé gender to organizational commitment, job satisfaction, career progress expectations, perceived employment alternatives, role conflict, and role ambiguity are reported for a sample of 254 managers. Results indicate that having a mentor may be associated with a more positive job experience and the perception of more employment alternatives elsewhere. Implications for future research are discussed.     

A moderated mediation model of e-mentoring

Based on a longitudinal sample of 1381, this study develops and tests a moderated mediation model of electronic mentoring (e-mentoring). Results show evidence that frequency of interaction between protégés and mentors mediates the relationships between program antecedents (the protégé’s previous internet experience and initial motivation to participate) and program outcomes of general self-efficacy and task-efficacy. In addition, the protégé’s general self-efficacy prior to starting the program was found to moderate the relationships between protégé and mentor interaction frequency and program outcomes of task and general self-efficacy. Unexpectedly, having mentors in the past was not significantly related to program outcomes. Practical implications and future areas of research are identified and discussed.     

Protégés’ and mentors’ reactions to participating in formal mentoring programs: A qualitative investigation

Mentors and protégés from two formal mentoring programs were interviewed about the benefits associated with program participation, problems encountered in the program, and recommendations for program improvements. The most commonly reported benefits for protégés included learning, coaching, career planning, and psychosocial support. Mentors most frequently reported learning, developing a personal relationship, personal gratification, and enhanced managerial skills. Both groups identified a range of problems including mentor-protégé mismatches, scheduling difficulties, and geographic distance. Unique problems were also identified, including mentor neglect (by protégés), unmet expectations (by protégés), structural separation from the mentor (by protégés), and feelings of personal inadequacy (by mentors). Finally, suggestions for program improvement were identified such as clearer communication of program objectives, better matching, targeted participation in the program, and better program monitoring. Findings are discussed in terms of what we currently know about informal mentoring and implications for mentoring theory. Suggestions for mentoring practice are also discussed.     

大五人格特质与领导有效性的相关研究

对72家企业的210名管理人员的大五人格特质及其与领导有效性的相关进行了研究,结果表明．管理人员的人格特质可以用神经质、外向性、开放性、宜人性和认真性五个因素加以解释,所编制的五因素人格问卷的信度、构想效度、聚合效度和判别效度都达到了心理测量学的要求;管理人员的人格特质对其领导有效性具有重要的影响。     

Big-five personality and BIS/BAS traits as predictors of career exploration: The mediation role of career adaptability

Based on career construction theory, the current research examined whether career adaptability mediates the relations of the personality traits (Five-Factor Model personality traits and behavioral inhibition and activation systems (BIS/BAS)) to career exploration behavior. Results from a survey in Chinese university students (N = 264) showed that career exploration correlated negatively with neuroticism, and positively with openness to experience, extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness and BAS. Results of regression analyses further showed that openness to experience, agreeableness, conscientiousness and BAS served as the strongest predictors for career exploration. In addition, career adaptability was shown to be a key mediator for the relationships between personality traits and career exploration behavior. Career concern and career curiosity were the more important dimensions in the mediation model. These findings advance current understandings on how different personality traits predict career exploration behavior.     

Personality Correlates of Depressive Style in Autobiographies of Creative Achievers

This study compared neurotic and depressive personality characteristics in creative achievers versus eminent but non-creative achievers. Forty-eight subjects' (25 men, 23 women) autobiographies were assessed by trained raters on personality using the California Q-Set. Creative achievers included literary and visual artists whereas the control group consisted of political, military and social leaders. The Q-Set ratings were used to assess the five factors of personality (neuroticism, extroversion, openness to experience, agreeableness and conscientiousness). Neuroticism was further divided into subscales that assessed depressive style, impulsivity and anxiety. Results showed that creative achievers were rated significantly higher than controls on general neuroticism, as well as on depressive style and impulsivity. Creative achievers did not differ from controls in anxiety. It was also found that creative achievers were rated significantly higher than controls on openness to experience and agreeableness, but lower on conscientiousness. None of the effects for creativity was affected by subjects' sex.     

Personality change via work: A job demand–control model of Big-five personality changes

Based on the job demand–control model and Gray's biopsychological theory of personality, the author proposed a model to suggest that time demand and job control can drive changes in Big-five personality traits, especially neuroticism and extroversion, by shaping an individual's stress experiences at work. Five waves of data from 1814 employees over a five-year period from the Household, Income and Labor Dynamics in Australia Survey were analyzed. Time demand, job control and job stress were measured in all five waves, and Big-five personality was assessed in the first and last waves. The results showed that time demand and job control shaped job stress positively and negatively at a given time; and over time, an increase in time demand predicted an increase in job stress, which subsequently predicted an increase in neuroticism and a decrease in extroversion and conscientiousness. Results also showed that an increase in job control predicted an increase in agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness directly, but did not predict change in neuroticism and extroversion. Finally, the buffering effect of job control on the association between time demand and job stress was only observed in two of five waves and such buffering effect was not observed in a change process. The implications on personality development and work design research are discussed.     

Association between the Five Factor personality traits and perceived stress: is the effect mediated by general self-efficacy?

Ill-health resulting from chronic stress is influenced by personality traits leading to different ways of appraising and coping with life's daily hassles. Using a large population sample the study aimed to investigate possible associations between perceived stress and the personality dimensions of neuroticism, extroversion, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness, and to explore the role of general self-efficacy (GSE). A population-based cross-sectional study was conducted at the Research Centre for Prevention and Health, Denmark, in 2006-2008. Men and women (N=3471) aged 18-69, were randomly sampled in the suburbs of Copenhagen. We used the NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI), Cohen's Perceived Stress Scale and the General Self-Efficacy Scale. Negative associations were found between perceived stress and extroversion, conscientiousness, agreeableness, and openness - the latter initially non-significant - whilst neuroticism had a positive association. The associations with agreeableness and openness became positive and significant, respectively, when GSE was included. All five personality-stress models were mediated by GSE, with extroversion and conscientiousness having the strongest mediating effect. The strongest stress-association was found for neuroticism. GSE was shown to change the impact and interpretation of the personality dimensions on perceived stress. These results indicate that GSE is an important factor to consider in the link between personality and perceived stress.