如何克服考试中的心理定势

心理定势是指一定的心理活动所形成的带有倾向性的准备状态。它对后继心理活动的趋势产生决定性的影响作用。心理定势在我们的活动中会经常发生作用,这种作用包括积极和消极两个方面。如果后继活动的条件没有发生改变,心理定势则促使活动迅速完成;如果后继活动的条件发生了改变,心     

社会心理学中的启动研究:范式与挑战

启动效应被严格界定为先前刺激对后续无关情境中的行为反应产生的无意识影响,而且启动对象应是某种认知表征或思维过程。启动研究最早源于认知心理学领域,后被用于社会心理学研究中,并逐渐发展出概念启动、心理定势启动和序列启动三大启动范式及诸多新技术。已有研究存在启动术语混淆和实验者效应等内外部效度问题,其中最大的争议为启动研究结果的可重复性问题。未来研究应致力于解决这些问题,并探讨启动的作用机制。     

知识经验与顿悟：来自认知神经科学的证据

知识经验对于顿悟问题解决是一把双刃剑,强势知识会阻碍顿悟问题解决,弱势知识才是顿悟问题解决的关键。强势知识引导的组块效应、约束效应和固着效应等心理定势现象,“帮助”问题解决者以惯用方案来理解、思考和解决问题。之所以会这样,可能是因为大脑内存在一套具有优先级差的层级加工系统,赋予惯用方案的优先级最高。不过,惯用方案不仅不能够解决顿悟问题,而且还会通过注意竞争和注意失灵方式来阻碍新异方案的探索和执行,所以,问题解决者往往都会进入思维僵局。僵局的打破和顿悟的实现,需要抑制住强势知识及其相关的惯用方案、激活弱势知识和新异方案,这违反了大脑的认知加工惯性,是很难以自发发生的。但是,可以通过激活扩散来增强弱势知识的激活水平,或者是拓宽注意范围、提高注意灵活性来增加弱势知识激活的可能性,从而促进顿悟问题解决。     

心理定势发生机制的模型建构

心理定势作为个体的一种预备状态,是先前的活动倾向对后来活动的影响,前苏联格鲁吉亚学派围绕它建立了较为完备的传统心理定势理论。而该文则希冀超越传统社会心理学的视角,以信息加工的心理学视角,使用图式理论重新阐释心理定势现象发生的内在作用机制,尝试建构“定势现象的图式激活过程理论模型”。     

错误记忆的来源：编码阶段／保持阶段

错误记忆是人们对未经验过事件或未学过单词的记忆。研究表明,不同实验室研究范式下引发的错误记忆在来源阶段上存在差异。本研究通过同时操纵预警提示和时间间隔两个因素来探讨错误记忆的来源问题。结果发现:关联性错误记忆出现预警效应,但不具有时间效应;误导性错误记忆则恰好相反。可见,关联性错误记忆可能主要发生在编码阶段,而误导性错误记忆则可能主要发生在保持阶段。     

单一来源闭合原则与简单知识问题

简单知识问题严重挑战了允许基本知识存在的认识论理论。本文认为,简单知识问题的根源在于传统认知闭合原则的内在缺陷。基于蒂姆·布莱克提出的单一来源闭合原则,本文提出了一种解决简单知识问题的方案。本文首先通过两个反例表明布菜克原则的错误,接着指出这一错误源于布莱克对于知识来源的类型化理解。最后,本文认为,如果我们将知识来源理解为具体证据或理由,那么经过修正后的原则不但能够避免布莱克的错误,而且能够成功解决简单知识问题。     

论德性

德性是人优秀品质中的一种,是由理智或智慧在正确道德观念的前提下根据有利于具有者和他活动于其中的共同体及其成员更好生存的根本要求培育的,通常以心理定势对人的活动发生作用并使人的活动及其主体成为善(好)的道德意义上的善(好)品质,即道德的品质.它具有指向性、意向性、多维性、统一性、稳定性和普适性等主要特征.德性从直觉的层次看是社会道德要求的内化,但从批判的层次上看则根源于人更好生存的需要.德性一般都体现为德目或德性要求,因而具有规范性,但德性规范是构成性规则,与作为规范性规则的道德规范有所不同.     

有关条件推理中概率效应的实验研究

通过预备实验选取了四种不同条件概率的条件规则和四种不同前后件概率组合的条件规则作为实验材料,以大学生为被试,考察了两种概率因素(条件概率和前后件概率)对条件推理的演绎形式(MP、DA、AC、MT)以及变通形式(四卡问题)的影响。结果表明,两种概率因素对四种条件推理的影响都非常显著,研究进一步证实了人们对四种推理的认可程度主要与范畴前提的概率成正比的结论;但概率因素对四卡问题的解决影响不明显。     

道德难题的内在主义解决方案

"道德难题"是近二十年来西方哲学界热烈讨论的话题之一。它是关于如何为道德实践活动的客观性和实践性特征提供一个一致性解释的元伦理学理论的问题。动机内在主义方案是解决道德难题的诸多路径之一。"无道德者""意志力薄弱"等反例使得简单内在主义方案极具争议。"意志上的不可能"(volitional impossibility)案例彻底证明现有的内在主义方案,简单内在主义和条件内在主义,都是不可行的。     

运用群体动力理论,发挥“非正式群体”在班组工作中的作用

一、什么是群体动力理论群体动力理论是研究群体活动的内部机制的理论,它以动态的和系统的观点,分析和研究群体中人与环境两个方面的诸多因素,及群体对个人行为的影响和群体的行为规律。人们的行为取决于个人的内在医素和外部条件,受动机支配和影响,在动机激励下进行的,随着人们的思想意识和环境的改变,人们的行为也必然发生相应的变化。个人行为效率高低直接影响组织目标的实现,个人行为的方向、向量决定于内在的力场与情境力场的相互关系。人们之所以有这样或那样的行为,都是受到环境和内在因素的影响。人的思想、意识、情感、意志、兴趣、需要等等,这些都属于内在的动力因素,它是人们行为的决定因素。一个群体不是个体的、抽象的、简单的结合,而是有血有肉、有灵魂的人     

Investigating the effect of mental set on insight problem solving

Mental set is the tendency to solve certain problems in a fixed way based on previous solutions to similar problems. The moment of insight occurs when a problem cannot be solved using solution methods suggested by prior experience and the problem solver suddenly realizes that the solution requires different solution methods. Mental set and insight have often been linked together and yet no attempt thus far has systematically examined the interplay between the two. Three experiments are presented that examine the extent to which sets of noninsight and insight problems affect the subsequent solutions of insight test problems. The results indicate a subtle interplay between mental set and insight: when the set involves noninsight problems, no mental set effects are shown for the insight test problems, yet when the set involves insight problems, both facilitation and inhibition can be seen depending on the type of insight problem presented in the set. A two process model is detailed to explain these findings that combines the representational change mechanism with that of proceduralization.     

Arithmetic word problem solving: a Situation Strategy First framework

Before instruction, children solve many arithmetic word problems with informal strategies based on the situation described in the problem. A Situation Strategy First framework is introduced that posits that initial representation of the problem activates a situation-based strategy even after instruction: only when it is not efficient for providing the numerical solution is the representation of the problem modified so that the relevant arithmetic knowledge might be used. Three experiments were conducted with Year 3 and Year 4 children. Subtraction, multiplication and division problems were created in two versions involving the same wording but different numerical values. The first version could be mentally solved with a Situation strategy (Si version) and the second with a Mental Arithmetic strategy (MA version). Results show that Si-problems are easier than MA-problems even after instruction, and, when children were asked to report their strategy by writing a number sentence, equations that directly model the situation were predominant for Si-problems but not for MA ones. Implications of the Situation Strategy First framework regarding the relation between conceptual and procedural knowledge and the development of arithmetic knowledge are discussed.     

Expertise as mental set: The effects of domain knowledge in creative problem solving

Experts generally solve problems in their fields more effectively than novices because their wellstructured, easily activated knowledge allows for efficient search of a solution space. But what happens when a problem requires a broad search for a solution? One concern is that subjects with a large amount of domain knowledge may actually be at a disadvantage, because their knowledge may confine them to an area of the search space in which the solution does not reside. In other words, domain knowledge may act as a mental set, promoting fixation in creative problem-solving attempts. A series of three experiments in which an adapted version of Mednick’s (1962) remote associates task was used demonstrates conditions under which domain knowledge may inhibit creative problem solving.     

Activation of Real-World Knowledge in the Solution of Word Problems

This article describes two studies that examine factors influencing children's access to real-world knowledge during the solution of word problems. In the first study, based on work in Brazil by Carraher, Carraher, and Schliemann (1987), children were asked to solve arithmetic problems presented in three contexts: (a) as word problems, (b) in simulated store situations, and (c) as symbolic computations. Brazilian children were both more successful and more likely to use mental, informal strategies when solving word problems than when solving symbolic computations. We did not find the same results with our U.S. sample; no effects of context were found in either strategy use or success. Comparison of U.S. and Brazilian children's responses suggested that children may tend to access real-world content when the numbers in a word problem match the problem content, and a second study was conducted to test this interpretation. Children were presented with word problems in which the problem content either matched or did not match the numbers in the problem. It was found that when the numbers matched the problem content, children were more successful in solving the problems and more likely to access their domain knowledge during problem solution, as evidenced by the strategies they used to solve problems in the matched condition. These findings suggest ways in which activation of real-world knowledge might be facilitated during the solution of word problems in school.     

Schema induction in problem solving: a multidimensional analysis

The present research examined the processes of schema formation in problem solving. In 4 experiments, participants experienced a series of tasks analogous to A. S. Luchins' (1942) water jar problems before attempting to solve isomorphic target problems. Juxtaposing illustrative source instances varying in procedural features along multiple dimensions promoted the construction of a general schema that facilitated solving an isomorphic problem requiring a novel procedure. Exposure to less variant problems led to faster initial learning, but narrower and fixed schemas (mental set), whereas exposure to variant procedures led to slower initial learning, but broader and more flexible schemas. The findings support the dimensional specificity hypothesis: Generalization along 1 dimension facilitates transfer to a target problem differing from the source problems in that dimension.     

Judging a book by its cover: Interpretative effects of content on problem-solving transfer

We examine how cover stories of isomorphic problems affect transfer. Existing models posit that people retain content in problem representations and that similarities and differences between the “undeleted” cover stories might interfere with recognition of structural similarities.We propose that cover stories can affect transfer in another way—by inducing semantic knowledge that modifies problem structures. Two experiments examined how people represent and solve permutation problems dealing with random assignment of elements from one set to elements from another set. Although the problems were structurally isomorphic, cover stories involving different pairs of element sets led subjects to abstract different “interpreted structures.” Problems involving objects and people (e.g., prizes and students) led subjects to abstract an asymmetric structure (“get”) and problems involving similar sets of people (e.g., doctors and doctors) led subjects to abstract a symmetric structure (“pair”). Transfer was mediated by similarities and differences between the interpreted structures of the learned and the novel problems.     

Simple and complex mental addition across development

Students in Grades 1, 4, 7, and 10 were timed as they solved simple and complex addition problems, then were presented similar problems in an untimed interview. A manipulation of confusion between addition and multiplication, in which multiplication answers were given to addition problems (3 + 4 = 12), revealed evidence for the hypothesized interrelatedness of these operations in memory only in 10th graders. The overall pattern of results suggests a strong reliance on memory retrieval, even in the first-grade group, with discernible time differences when “procedural” knowledge of carrying is required for problem solution. The results were judged consistent with a fact retrieval model which invokes explicit procedural information when problem difficulty is high or when processes like carrying and estimating magnitudes are required. In agreement with several other reports, the overall slowing of performance to larger problems is best explained in terms of normatively defined problem difficulty or associative strength in memory.     

Spatial problem solving and functional relations

Three experiments investigated the role of object knowledge on participants' ability to solve a spatial arrangement problem. The task was to rearrange six real-world three-dimensional objects so that their relative locations agreed with a given set of rules. The aim of the experiments was to tease out the relative extent to which object association, orientation, and object-specific functional relations affect performance on arrangement tasks. When the problem was presented vertically (objects arranged in piles), participants solved functional canonical versions of the problem significantly quicker than functional non-canonical versions both between (Experiments 1a and 2), and within subjects (Experiment 3). When the arrangement problem was presented horizontally (objects arranged flat in two rows), no significant differences in solution times were found between conditions (Experiments 1b and 2). Overall the results provide evidence for the importance of object-specific functional relations as a predictor of the solution time of spatial arrangement problems, although some differences were noted between single and multiple presentation of problems when specific rules within problems were rotated. The importance of functional information in memory as a constraint on the building of mental models and problem spaces is discussed.