Bias at the intersection of race and gender: Evidence from preschool‐aged children

There is ample evidence of racial and gender bias in young children, but thus far this evidence comes almost exclusively from children's responses to a single social category (either race or gender). Yet we are each simultaneously members of many social categories (including our race and gender). Among adults, racial and gender biases intersect: negative racial biases are expressed more strongly against males than females. Here, we consider the developmental origin of bias at the intersection of race and gender. Relying on both implicit and explicit measures, we assessed 4‐year‐old children's responses to target images of children who varied systematically in both race (Black and White) and gender (male and female). Children revealed a strong and consistent pro‐White bias. This racial bias was expressed more strongly for males than females: children's responses to Black boys were less positive than to Black girls, White boys or White girls. This outcome, which constitutes the earliest evidence of bias at the intersection of race and gender, underscores the importance of addressing bias in the first years of life.     

More alike than meets the eye: Perceived gender differences in subjective experience and its display

This research investigated perceived gender differences in subjective experience and its outward display. Subjects imagined a female friend or a male friend in a series of brief situations, each of which was said to elicit a particular subjective experience in the friend. After each situation, they estimated the extent to which the friend would experience the feeling, and also the extent to which the friend would display the feeling to others. Results confirmed two related predictions, both based on attribution research: First, perceived gender-related differences in the outward display of an experience were generally greater than perceived gender-related differences in the subjective experience itself. Males and females, that is, were generally viewed as more alike in their internal feelings than in their overt behaviors. Second, perceived female/male differences in outward display varied more with the feeling elicited by the situation than perceived female/male differences in subjective experience. Specifically, subjects estimated that females would display communal, socially desirable feelings more than males and self-oriented, less desirable feelings less than males, but that females would experience both categories of feelings somewhat more intensely than males would experience them. In addition to confirming these two predictions, our results also indicated that the sex viewed as having greater hidden feelings—operationalized as the amount by which estimations of subjective experience exceeded estimations of display—also varied with the situation. With communal, highly desirable feelings, males were viewed as having greater hidden feelings, but with self-oriented, less desirable feelings, females were viewed as having greater hidden feelings. This pattern did not interact with gender of perceiver. The data, however, indicated that female perceivers tended to rate both males and females higher on measures of both experience and display than males did, and that male perceivers tended to perceive greater gender differences than females did.     

How the sexes perceive each other: Advantages and disadvantages

Two hundred and forty-seven female and 138 male college students completed a survey that asked them to judge the advantages and disadvantages of being a member of the other sex. Both sexes were found to perceive males to have significantly more advantages and significantly fewer disadvantages than females. Men based their judgments of female advantages to a significantly greater extent upon social considerations than women did for males. The reverse was true for disadvantage responses. Multivariate and univariate analyses of the responses within advantage and disadvantage categories revealed several significant differences between the sexes. These findings revealed a complex pattern as to how each sex perceives the other. Discussion relates these differences to differences between the sexes in life experiences and expectations. Suggestions for further research are offered.Appreciation is expressed to Barry Arbuckle and Tina Tanner for their assistance in the coding of the data.     

Influence of sex and gender roles on high school status systems

Past research has indicated significant sex differences in determinants of male and female high school students' status as measured by how subjects would like to have been remembered from their high school years. In order to determine if remembrance preference is sex or gender role related, 671 subjects were administered the Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI) and a questionnaire asking if they most wanted to be remembered from high school as a brilliant student, leader in activities, athletic star or most popular. Using both the median split and t-ratio procedures in scoring the BSRI, 206 subjects were selected because they were sex-typed (masculine males, feminine females), cross sex-typed (masculine females, feminine males), or androgynous (scoring high on both masculine and feminine traits). To find a model of best fit, the data were subjected to a log-linear analysis. The variables included were sex, gender role, and remembrance preference. Rather than sex being the influential factor, the model of best fit was a gender role by remembrance preference interaction. If subjects were masculine, they were more likely to choose athletic star than were feminine or androgynous subjects. Most popular and leader in activities were both more likely to be chosen by feminine and androgynous subjects. All groups chose brilliant student more often than any other category. It was concluded that some previously designated sex differences may instead be differences in gender role. Further research should address the distinction between the two.     

Gender,gender role,and body image

The relationship between gender role and body image was examined in this research. Females and males who differed in their gender roles (i.e., masculine, feminine, androgynous, or undifferentiated) completed the Body-Self Relations Questionnaire (B. A. Winstead & T. F. Cash, Reliability and Validity of the Body-Self Questionnaire: A New Measure of Body Image, paper presented at the meeting of the Southeastern Psychological Association, New Orleans, Louisiana, 1984) and a measure of self-esteem. Results indicated that feminine females evaluated their physical appearance less favorably than androgynous females, although physical appearance was equally important to both groups. The importance of the masculine component of gender role was reflected in the favorable body-image ratings of androgynous and masculine females in all domains (i.e., physical appearance, physical fitness, and physical health), and in the unfavorable ratings of feminine males in the physical fitness domain. Regression analyses to predict body-image ratings indicated that while self-esteem was an important predictor, it did not account for the relationships between gender, gender role, and body image. Implications of the findings for future research on the relationships between gender role, body image, and indices of mental health are discussed.The authors would like to thank the consulting editor for her invaluable comments on earlier drafts of this article.     

Early gender differences in the functional usage of language

Early male and female differences in the functional use of language were investigated by coding the verbal interactions of 32 preschool children during a 10-minute play session with same-sex peer. The speech of each child was classified into functional-motivational categories using the FIS-P scoring instrument. The findings were consistent with the literature on adult conversational styles, showing that males talk more and are more assertive in their social interactions than are females. The results of this study demonstrate the existence of early gender differences in the functional use of language and emphasize the importance of a developmental approach to the study of communication styles.     

‘I Remember When I Learned That!’ developmental and gender differences in children's memories of learning episodes

Eighty 4‐ to 9‐year‐old children answered factual knowledge questions in math, science and social studies during one‐on‐one interviews. Children indicated whether they had known or guessed each answer, and whether they (a) remembered the moment they learned the answer (episodic response) or (b) did not remember. For episodic responses, children provided memory narratives of learning episodes. One third of children's responses identified a learning episode. There was a developmental trend in which older children were more episodic than younger children, and when children knew and provided correct answers, there was a gender difference in which females were more episodic than males. Developmental and gender differences in the characteristics of memory narratives were also apparent. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Ethnicity,gender, and evaluations of aggression

In order to investigate some of the ways in which ethnicity and gender influence interpretations of aggression, 363 Anglo and Hispanic university students responded to a questionnaire soliciting their evaluations of aggression in three situations. Consistent with previous research and with the stereotype of machismo, Hispanics, particularly Hispanic males, were more likely to endorse some aggressive behaviors than Anglos. However, the same pattern of gender influences emerged for both ethnic groups. As predicted, males were more aggressive and more supportive of fighting back and punishing an aggressor than females, whereas females were more likely to show self-control about aggression and to endorse restraint. Respondents, particularly males, said that they would behave more aggressively toward a male, and they encouraged a male to behave more aggressively. These results are consistent with the social constructionist view that performance and evaluations of aggression are largely influenced by cultural factors. © 1995 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Testing hypotheses regarding rape: Exposure to sexual violence,sex differences,and the “normality” of rapists

Three hypotheses on the subject of rape were addressed empirically. The first concerns the effects of exposure to sexual violence on reactions to rape. Males and females were first exposed to either a sadomasochistic or a nonviolent version of the same sexual passage and then to a portrayal of rape. Responses to the rape showed interactions between gender and previous exposure: In comparison to males who had read the nonviolent version, males exposed to the sadomasochistic story were more sexually aroused to the rape depiction and more punitive toward the rapist whereas females evidenced differences in the opposite direction. Simple effects analyses for each gender, however, yielded significant differences for the punitiveness measure only and for males only. In addressing the second hypothesis, gender differences were found in the perception of rape. Third, the assertion that rape may be an extension of normal sexual patterns was explored. Subjects were found to believe that a high percentage of men would rape if assured of not being punished and that a substantial percentage of women would enjoy being victimized. While both genders shared these beliefs, very few women believed that they personally would derive pleasure from victimization. Surprisingly, more than half of the males indicated some likelihood that they themselves would rape if assured of not being punished. The association between this self-report and general attitudes toward rape revealed a pattern that bears striking similarity to the callous attitudes often held by convicted rapists.     

The effects of sexual permissiveness,target gender,subject gender,and attitude toward women on social perception: In search of the double standard

The sexual double standard, if held by perceivers, should result in more negative evaluations of sexually permissive females than males. Previous research on the double standard has generally ignored this normative issue, and has instead relied on self-report methods to measure personal sexual behavior and the stated limits of acceptable behavior for others. Male and female subjects, either liberal or traditional in their sex role attitudes, were exposed to a male or female target of one of four levels of sexual permissiveness. On most scales, representing a wide range of social judgments, there was no evidence of a sexual double standard. Limited evidence emerged in that male, but not female, subjects may have exhibited a double standard in their ratings of how sexual the target was. In addition, liberal males and traditional females rated female targets who had casual sex as less agreeable than comparable male targets. Despite the general absence of a double-standard effect, sexual permissiveness affected ratings such that more permissive targets were judged as less moral, less conventional, more assertive, more sexual, marginally more likable and less conforming. The findings are discussed in terms of the double standard, the effects of sexual permissiveness on social perception, and gender differences in perceiving sexuality.     

Effects of gender and gender role identification of participant and type of social support resource on support seeking

The relationship between type of social support resource (emotional vs. instrumental support) sought and gender and gender role identification was examined. Gender-typed and androgynous, white, middle to upper middle class males and females were given scenarios describing situations in which help was needed, and which also identified a female helper who would provide either emotional or instrumental support. The results indicated that males reported a significantly lower likelihood of seeking emotional support than instrumental support, while no significant differences were found between levels of seeking emotional and instrumental support for females. In comparing men and women for each type of support, it was found that males reported a significantly lower likelihood of seeking emotional support than did females. In addition, gender-typed males reported seeking emotional support significantly less than did the other three groups: androgynous males and females, and gender-typed females.This article was derived from the first author's master's thesis, who wishes to gratefully acknowledge the support and guidance of Ann Fuehrer, Richard Sherman, and Stephen Hinkle in the preparation of this article, the assistance of Andrew Avellano and Jami Pennington, and the anonymous reviewers for their comments on this article.     

Courtship in the personals column: The influence of gender and sexual orientation

Eight hundred personal advertisements were analyzed, representing an equal sampling of male and female homosexual and heterosexual advertisers on the East and West Coast of the United States. In general, men were more concerned with physical characteristics, while women stressed psychological factors. Homosexuals were more concerned with sexuality, while heterosexuals specified a broader range of characteristics. Significant interactions between gender and sexual orientation point to the importance of sex-role expectations in the heterosexual context and suggest substantial differences between males and females who choose homosexuality.     

Sex of subject and gender identity as factors in humor appreciation

Appreciation of cartoon humor was examined in male and female college students who had been categorized into one of four gender identity groups (masculine, feminine, androgynous, undifferentiated) on the basis of Bem's Sex Role Inventory. Results indicated that males preferred sexual humor more than absurd humor, while females showed the reverse pattern. Furthermore, gender identity was related to humor appreciation only for females. While feminine females preferred absurd humor more than sexual humor, masculine and androgynous females were more appreciative of sexual humor. Finally, masculine, feminine, and undifferentiated males, as well as masculine and androgynous females, showed greater appreciation of sexual humor which portrayed females, as opposed to males, as the sex object or brunt of the joke.     

Relationships among self‐construal,gender, social dominance orientation,and interpersonal distance

The present research focuses on the cognitive embodiment of physical proximity, through interpersonal distance’s relationship with self‐construal, gender, and social dominance orientation. Previous work showed that more independent self‐construal was associated with higher distancing preferences of participants, and that females tend to have higher interdependent self‐construal that lead them to prefer less interpersonal distance. We expected to replicate these findings. However, due to the relationship between power and interpersonal distance, it was argued that gender and perceptions regarding the social hierarchy would also play a role in predicting interpersonal distance. More specifically, it was predicted that while females who accept social hierarchies between males and females would prefer more distance when interacting with males, males would not differ in their preference for social distance. One hundred participants (67 female) completed the Comfortable Interpersonal Distance Scale, Independent and Interdependent Self‐Construal Scales and the Social Dominance Orientation Scale. Interdependent self‐construal was negatively correlated with overall preferred interpersonal distance. Moreover, females high on social dominance orientation preferred larger interpersonal distance from male adult strangers than from female adult strangers. The findings provide further support for the embodiment of self‐construal by showing that psychological closeness and heteronomy are related to physical closeness. The findings also highlight the importance of investigating communal sharing and authority ranking dimensions simultaneously when focusing on interpersonal distance as well as differentiating females’ interpersonal sensitivity due to low power with their high affiliation.     

Human figure drawings of adjudicated and nonadjudicated adolescents

We investigated differences between human figure drawings of adjudicated and nonadjudicated adolescents. In addition, the relationship between human figure drawings and crime category (person, property, other, none) was examined for the adjudicated adolescents. Subjects consisted of four groups of adolescents (n = 25 each): adjudicated males, adjudicated females, nonadjudicated males, and nonadjudicated females. Human figure drawings were obtained from all subjects; they were scored using a system that was developed for use with adolescents. Kruskal-Wallis one-way analyses of variance (ANOVAs) were used to assess the effects of adjudication status and gender. There were 11 significant differences between adjudicated and nonadjudicated adolescents and 11 differences among the four groups. Results of Kruskal-Wallis ANOVAs also showed two significant differences among crime categories.     

Sexual identification and gender identity among father-absent males

The present study used multiple measures of sexual identification and of gender identity to determine discriminant functions in order to classify 100 college males and 100 females. These functions were then applied in classification of a separate sample of 50 father-absent and 50 father-present males as masculine or feminine for sexual identification and for gender identity. True similarity to response patterns of a female sample, as reflected in differences in classification rates for father-present and -absent groups, was not observed for either variable. However, substantial support was obtained for a positive association between father absence for male subjects and less masculine gender identity. Different elements of family structure were observed to be associated with the development of sexual identification among father-absent and father-present males. Sons of mothers who remained single after the father's absence were more frequently classified female in sexual identification than were sons of mothers who remarried. Within intact families, a positive father-son relationship was associated with masculine sexual identification.     

Group-based trust and gender differences in China

Based on the established finding that there are gender differences in the type and use of social capital, we suggest that males and females also differ in the ways they engage in intra- and inter-group interactions. An experiment was conducted to explore how gender affects group-based trust in China. The results demonstrated that male participants were significantly more trusting of unknown partners than were female participants. In addition, we found that male participants' high trust toward unknown partners had a strong relationship with expectation of reciprocity from their partners while female participants' low trust toward unknown partners was associated with a strong fear of exploitation from their partners. These findings were examined in the context of a discussion of gender differences in social capital.     

Color preferences according to gender and sexual orientation

The present study was undertaken to verify findings surrounding sex differences in color preferences, and to extend this realm of inquiry by looking for possible differences in color preferences associated with sexual orientation. Based on a large sample of North American college students, significant gender differences were found, with the main difference being a greater preference for shades of blue by males than by females. Females, on the other hand, tended to be more evenly divided than males between preferring both green and blue. Regarding sexual orientation, we found no significant differences between heterosexuals and homosexual/bisexuals of either gender. In other words, male and female homosexuals/bisexuals exhibited essentially the same configuration of color preferences as did their heterosexual counterparts.     

Association between self-concept and body weight, gender, and pubertal development among male and female adolescents

This study examined the effects and interactions of gender, pubertal status, and body weight on the self-concept of 462 young adolescent Australian students from two different schools. All students enrolled in Years 7 and 8 completed the Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents, which includes several self-concept subscales and ratings of the importance of each subscale. The self-concept subscales ranked as most important by male and female students were Close Friendship, Scholastic Competence, and Job Competence. Females rated their ability to form close friendships significantly higher and of greater importance than did males. Standard body weight was related to students' Physical Appearance subscale scores, with higher weight students having lower self-concept, and postmenarcheal females having the poorest opinion of their physical appearance. Higher body weight males had lower scores on Athletic Competence, Job Competence, and Behavioral Conduct than did other males. Overweight females and normal weight males considered athletic competence to be more important than did other students. Pubertal status was related to students' scores on Athletic Competence, with postpubertal males who were not overweight scoring highest, and on Physical Appearance, with postmenarcheal females having the lowest opinion of their appearance. The mean self-concept score was significantly related to students' standard body weight, and there was an interaction between gender and puberty, with postpubertal males having the highest and postmenarcheal females the lowest self-concept score. The discrepancy score suggested that females felt they had failed to meet their ideal self-concept significantly more than did males. The results suggest that school programs should be implemented to provide exercise and job skill training suitable for all students, especially those who are overweight. These programs, while taking into account students' pubertal status, should aim to improve self-image without resulting in feelings of failure.