Recall and anticipation methods in probabilistic associative learning1

Six S-R₁ S-R2 modified paired-associates were presented for 60 trials. A 2 by 6 factorial design was employed in which method, recall or anticipation, and the S-R₁, S-R₂ probability-ratio were varied. The S-R₁ S-R₂ ratios were: 1.00-0.00, .90-.10, 80-.20, .70-30. .60-.40, and .50-.50. The results indicated that the recall procedure yielded superior performance in early acquisition. In later stages, recall yielded results approaching matching, whereas the anticipation procedure yielded overmatching of Rt anticipations and undermatching of R₂ anticipations. The results were interpreted as showing that as probability-ratio varies from .50-.50 to 1.00-0.00, and hence, as the relative difference of response strengths of S-R₁, and S-R₂ increases, the selection factor in the anticipation procedure yields a heavy weighting of the stronger response, R,, and the acquisition of the weaker association, S-R₂, occurs slowly; for the recall paradigm, however, the data suggest that R₁, is inhibited and S-R₂ is more readily acquired. The results also were interpreted as showing that one difference in the standard paired-associate recall and anticipation paradigms is that in the recall method. strong error tendencies may be inhibited, but in the anticipation method, strong error tendencies are weighted heavily.     

The role of awareness in anticipation and recall performance in the Hebb repetition paradigm: implications for sequence learning

Sequence learning has notably been studied using the Hebb repetition paradigm (Hebb, 1961) and the serial reaction time (SRT) task (Nissen & Bullemer, Cognitive Psychology 19:1–32, 1987). These two paradigms produce robust learning effects but differ with regard to the role of awareness: Awareness does not affect learning a repeated sequence in the Hebb repetition paradigm, as is evidenced by recall performance, whereas in the SRT task, awareness helps to anticipate the location of the next stimulus. In this study, we examined the role of awareness in anticipation and recall performance, using the Hebb repetition paradigm. Eye movements were monitored during a spatial reconstruction task where participants had to memorize sequences of dot locations. One sequence was repeated every four trials. Results showed that recall performance for the repeated sequence improved across repetitions for all participants but that anticipation increased only for participants aware of the repetition.     

A test of the differences between anticipation and study-test methods of paired-associate learning

The identity model proposes that anticipation and study-test methods of paired-associate learning differ little in basic acquisition, retrieval, and storage processes per event: study, test, and intervening study and test events of other items plus the intercycle interval. The major difference between the two methods boils down to differential short-term loss over the differential retention interval. When the study-test interval is equated, the identity model predicts no difference between the methods. However, the feedback model predicts superiority for the anticipation method, and the differential acquisition, context effect, or task alternation models predict superiority for the study-test method. An experimental test utilized (nearly) identical study-test intervals, various materials, and both massed and spaced practice. In 15 out of 16 comparisons, there was no difference between the methods, providing support for the identity model. Within limits, the greater the study-test interval differentials, the greater the advantage for the method with the shorter study-test intervals. Quantitative analyses support the identity model.     

Visual similarity effects in immediate verbal serial recall

The role of visual working memory in temporary serial retention of verbal information was examined in four experiments on immediate serial recall of words that varied in visual similarity and letters that varied in the visual consistency between upper and lower case. Experiments 1 and 2 involved words that were either visually similar (e.g. fly, cry, dry; hew, new, few ) or were visually distinct (e.g. guy, sigh, lie; who, blue, ewe ). Experiments 3 and 4 involved serial recall of both letter and case from sequences of letters chosen such that the upper- and lower-case versions were visually similar, for example Kk, Cc, Zz, Ww , or were visually dissimilar, for example Dd, Hh, Rr, Qq . Hence in the latter set, case informationwas encoded interms of both the shape and the size of the letters. With both words and letters, the visually similar items resulted in poorer recall both with and without concurrent articulatory suppression. This visual similarity effect was robust and was replicated across the four experiments. The effect was not restricted to any particular serial position and was particularly salient in the recall of letter case. These data suggest the presence of a visual code for retention of visually presented verbal sequences in addition to a phonological code, and they are consistent with the use of a visual temporary memory, or visual "cache", in verbal serial recall tasks.     

Controlled recall of verbal material in temporal lobe epilepsy

This study used a guided process‐dissociation procedure to examine the contribution of controlled and automatic uses of memory to a cued‐recall task in 24 patients with unilateral temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE: 12 left‐sided; 12 right‐sided), and 12 neurotypical controls. In an inclusion task, participants attempted to complete three‐letter word stems using previously studied words, in an exclusion task they aimed to avoid using studied words to complete stems. Patients with left TLE produced fewer target completions under inclusion conditions. Completion rates were not significantly different under exclusion conditions. Estimates derived from process dissociation calculations, confirmed that the cued‐recall deficit in left TLE patients arose entirely from impairment in controlled memory processes. There were no group differences in the estimates of automatic processes. Recognition judgements of stems corresponding to studied words did not differ between the groups. Overall the results support the view that controlled and automatic memory processes are mediated by separable neural systems. Hippocampal and related structures within the left MTL are more important than corresponding right hemisphere structures for the controlled retrieval of verbal material. In contrast, the findings from this study do not suggest that the left and right temporal lobes make a differential contribution to automatic memory processing. The theoretical and clinical relevance of these findings are discussed.     

Frequency estimation in verbal learning

A multicopy theory of frequency estimation and discrimination is applied to some data found in the literature on verbal learning. The main theoretical assumption adopted is that ‘relevant’ copies generated during study have to be discriminated from ‘irrelevant’ copies as are available in memory from other occasions than the study session proper. At retrieval, copies of either type are added and their sum determines the frequency estimates that are actually reported. A formalization of these ideas is presented and applied to Hinztman's (1969) and Underwood, Zimmerman, and Freund's (1971) data. Two specific models that emphasize either storage or retrieval of copy information are studied. The results show that the models provide a close approximation to the frequency discrimination data. With absolute frequency estimation, both the means and standard deviations of the judgements are predicted reasonably well. However, some reservations were dictated by the fact that, in one instance, the tails of the judgement distributions were not accounted for. The theory offers a theoretical framework for Underwood et al.'s method of cross-relating absolute frequency and forced choice judgements; the usefulness of two approaches to this problem is established. Also, possible extensions of the theory are noted.     

Ordinal position learning and remote anticipation

Rats were runway trained on each of two 3-trial series of reward outcomes. The series are labeled XNY and ZNN, for which X represents a trial that was rewarded with Noyes pellets and N represents a trial that ended with no reward. Units of distinctively flavored breakfast cereals served as reward on trials labeled Y and Z. One group (Floor) had each series occur with a correlated runway floor, either smooth and black or rough and white. For a second group (Memory), the floor cue was uncorrelated with series. Animals in both groups learned to approach the goal rapidly on the 1st trials of the 2 series and slowly on the 2nd trials, but only Group Floor learned to differentiate the 3rd trials of the series. These results recommend a view of serial learning that emphasizes the role played by information about the ordinal position of series items.     

Presentation modality and mode of recall in verbal false memory

False memories were investigated for aurally and visually presented lists of semantically associated words. In Experiment 1, false written recall of critical intrusions was reliably lower following visual presentation compared with aural presentation. This presentation modality effect was attributed to the use of orthographic features during written recall to edit critical intrusions from visually presented lists. As predicted by this hypothesis, the modality effect was eliminated when the mode of recall was spoken rather than written. In Experiment 2, the modality effect in written recall was again replicated and then eliminated with an orienting task that ensured orthographic encoding even of aurally presented words. Thus, the modality effect appears to depend on using orthographic information to distinguish true from false verbal memories.