Synchronous and time-lagged effects between occupational self-efficacy and objective and subjective career success: Findings from a four-wave and 9-year longitudinal study

We integrated research on the dimensionality of career success into social-cognitive career theory and explored the positive feedback loop between occupational self-efficacy and objective and subjective career success over time (self-efficacy → objective success → subjective success → self-efficacy). Furthermore, we theoretically accounted for synchronous and time-lagged effects, as well as indirect reciprocity between the variables. We tested the proposed model by means of longitudinal structural equation modeling in a 9-year four-wave panel design, by applying a model comparison approach and indirect effect analyses (N = 608 professionals). The findings supported the proposed positive feedback loop between occupational self-efficacy and career success. Supporting our time-based reasoning, the findings showed that unfolding effects between occupational self-efficacy and objective career success take more time (i.e., time-lagged or over time) than unfolding effects between objective and subjective career success, as well as between subjective career success and occupational self-efficacy (i.e., synchronous or concurrently). Indirect effects of past on future occupational self-efficacy via objective and subjective career success were significant, providing support for an indirect reciprocity model. Results are discussed with respect to extensions of social-cognitive career theory and occupational self-efficacy development over time.     

Controlling your environment and yourself: Implications for career success

Given the complex and rapidly changing nature of the current work environment, individuals' capabilities to effectively influence their environment and regulate their behavior may be critical to career success. Drawing from the model of emergent interactive agency (Bandura, 1989), the current research examines this perspective, focusing on proactive personality and self-control as predictors of extrinsic and intrinsic career success. Although some studies have investigated proactive personality as a predictor of success, less research has focused on factors involved in this relationship and very little work has examined self-control in the context of career success. Study 1 involved a cross-sectional design with 249 full-time employees who completed measures assessing personality and career-related variables. Study 2 involved a longitudinal design with 1568 individuals who were rated on self-control during childhood and completed career-related measures approximately 20 years later. Study 1 results indicated proactive personality and self-control related to extrinsic career success (salary and occupational prestige) through educational attainment. Study 2 results indicated self-control related to extrinsic career success (salary and occupational prestige) through educational attainment and intrinsic career success (career satisfaction) through occupational opportunity for achievement. These findings contribute to the knowledge base regarding career success by highlighting the relevance of active control tendencies that are externally focused (proactive personality) as well as those that are internally focused (self-control) and identifying key factors linking these traits to career success.     

Narcissism and career success: Occupational self-efficacy and career engagement as mediators

Narcissism is a personality trait that has potentially important effects on career development outcomes, yet empirical research on this issue is sparse. The present study explored the relationships between narcissism and two indicators of career success (i.e., salary and career satisfaction) among a group of young professionals (N = 314). We assessed a model proposing that the effect of narcissism on career success is mediated by increased occupational self-efficacy beliefs and career engagement. While correlations between narcissism and the two indicators of career success were minimal, the results showed a significant indirect effect on salary via occupational self-efficacy and indirect effects on career satisfaction via self-efficacy and career engagement. We discuss the results regarding insights into why narcissism may lead to career success.     

Reference groups: A missing link in career studies

Careers unfold within and are bound by multiple social contexts. Newer career concepts have postulated a growing need for personal agency in overcoming structural constraints, especially organizational and occupational boundaries. As a consequence, research has focused more on the individual than on contextual factors. In order to answer recent criticism of this unbalanced view we argue that the impact of reference groups needs to be better understood, both as social drivers of agentic behavior and as social constraints that, for instance, reduce the permeability of boundaries. Drawing on identity theories and social network literature we suggest a classification of reference groups in which social domains (e.g., organization, occupation, family, friends), types of groups (known people, abstract social categories), and functions (normative, comparative, supportive) are distinguished. The reference group classification is employed to discuss extant career research and to propose three directions for future research: a) Fuller consideration of different social domains beyond the employing organization for a more complete understanding of social influences in contemporary careers; b) exploration of the possibly growing relevance of abstract social categories as referents, especially for subjective career success; and c) systematic analysis of the interaction between normative, comparative, and supportive functions of individuals' social networks. Across these themes, possible negative influences of reference groups and effects of imposed rather than chosen referents are also to be considered. Implications of the suggested research for better understanding the interaction between structure and agency in shaping careers and career identity are discussed.     

Attributions about subjectively defined career success in different occupations

The present study investigated the applicability of the attributional theory of motivation to career research. The idea that the perceived causes of individuals' subjective definitions of their career success varied for different occupations was examined. Subjects that were studied represented occupations from each of Holland's six occupational types. The occupations were mechanical engineering, medicine, fine arts and journalism, registered nursing, law, and accounting. Responses from 395 individuals showed that other's unstable effort and luck attributions about the perceived causes of incumbents' career success varied for different occupations. Implications are discussed.     

Life Satisfaction from Late Adolescence to Mid-Life The Impact of Life Success and Success Evaluation on the Life Satisfaction of Former Gymnasium Students Between Ages 30 And 43

In order to be satisfied with one's life, one has to adapt goals to opportunities; from this, two hypotheses follow: Life satisfaction should be more strongly determined by success evaluation rather than life success, and more strongly by late rather than early life success. Both hypotheses are examined in a longitudinal study of former Gymnasium students from age 16 to 43.Dependent variables are the satisfaction with occupational and with private life at age 43. Independent variables are life success in occupational and private life between ages 16 and 43, satisfaction with occupational and private life at age 30, and strategies of coping with and attributing of success at age 43. As hypothesized, satisfaction with occupational and with private life are determined more strongly by success evaluation rather than by life success and by late rather than early life success. Furthermore, occupational satisfaction is more strongly determined by the former occupational career than private satisfaction by the private career.     

Reference groups: A missing link in career studies

Careers unfold within and are bound by multiple social contexts. Newer career concepts have postulated a growing need for personal agency in overcoming structural constraints, especially organizational and occupational boundaries. As a consequence, research has focused more on the individual than on contextual factors. In order to answer recent criticism of this unbalanced view we argue that the impact of reference groups needs to be better understood, both as social drivers of agentic behavior and as social constraints that, for instance, reduce the permeability of boundaries. Drawing on identity theories and social network literature we suggest a classification of reference groups in which social domains (e.g., organization, occupation, family, friends), types of groups (known people, abstract social categories), and functions (normative, comparative, supportive) are distinguished. The reference group classification is employed to discuss extant career research and to propose three directions for future research: a) Fuller consideration of different social domains beyond the employing organization for a more complete understanding of social influences in contemporary careers; b) exploration of the possibly growing relevance of abstract social categories as referents, especially for subjective career success; and c) systematic analysis of the interaction between normative, comparative, and supportive functions of individuals' social networks. Across these themes, possible negative influences of reference groups and effects of imposed rather than chosen referents are also to be considered. Implications of the suggested research for better understanding the interaction between structure and agency in shaping careers and career identity are discussed.     

A longitudinal study of career success,embeddedness, and mobility of early career professionals

The study of voluntary job mobility has traditionally focused on how the present context and individual factors either support or constrain choice of blue and white collar workers. Less attention has been devoted to the relationships among career success, embeddedness, and mobility of early career professionals. How do past career success and job mobility affect job embeddedness, subsequent career success, and future mobility within and between organizations and occupations? Each of these constructs is often studied as a dependent variable, yet the relationships among them, over time, are rarely examined. We explore the effects of past objective career actions (promotions, % salary change, and job mobility) on current job embeddedness and subjective career success, and on job, organizational, and occupational mobility one year later. Results support the positive influence of past promotions, % salary change, and current job embeddedness on subjective career success, and a negative influence for past promotions, job embeddedness, and subjective career success on mobility one year later as people began to ‘settle in’. We also observed small positive relationships of past promotions and % salary change with job embeddedness, and of past job mobility with future mobility — indicating that objective career success contributes to embeddedness, yet those that move more often tend to keep doing so. There were no differences or interaction effects based on gender or years of work experience. We found significantly stronger negative relationships of embeddedness and subjective career success with mobility between occupations than for mobility within organizations. However, the same pattern of findings was observed for job, organization, and occupational mobility.     

Subjective career success: A study of managers and support personnel

Despite popular belief that managers are successful by virtue of their positions, few studies have examined the position-success relationship. In this research, it was predicted that subjective career success is a multi-dimensional construct whose facets can be measured by several factors. Moreover, the phenomenon of career success was tested to see if it would relate to an employee's perception of occupational self-concept and job features. The notion that these dimensions would predict some aspects of career success more accurately for either managers or support personnel was also investigated. The confirming results obtained in this study and their implications for future research as well as practitioners are discussed.An earlier version of this article was presented at the 93rd Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, Los Angeles, California, 1985.     

Career Development: An Outline of Issues for Men

Career development is central to men's lives because occupation is closely welded to male identity. Specific issues discussed in this article include: sex role stereotypes and men's careers; the male equation of occupational success and high self esteem; the balancing of work, personal attachments and recreation; traditional and nontraditional careers; male-female employment combinations; developmental issues of mid-life and retirement; and high consumption (the result/motivator of occupational success?). Men will continue to need clearly conceptualized and highly skilled help with career development issues.     

THE BIG FIVE PERSONALITY TRAITS, GENERAL MENTAL ABILITY, AND CAREER SUCCESS ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN

The present study investigated the relationship of traits from the 5-factor model of personality (often termed the "Big Five") and general mental ability with career success. Career success was argued to be comprised of intrinsic success (job satisfaction) and extrinsic success (income and occupational status) dimensions. Data were obtained from the Intergenerational Studies, a set of 3 studies that followed participants from early childhood to retirement. The most general findings were that conscientiousness positively predicted intrinsic and extrinsic career success, neuroticism negatively predicted extrinsic success, and general mental ability positively predicted extrinsic career success. Personality was related to career success controlling for general mental ability and, though adulthood measures of the Big Five traits were more strongly related to career success than were childhood measures, both contributed unique variance in explaining career success.     

Achievement motivation theory and occupational choice

Two studies are reported which aimed to answer several questions relating to Atkinson's model of achievement motivation. Firstly, how successfully the theory can predict the occupational choices of two different populations and what changes, if any, need to be made to the model to make it more suited to such predictions. Several conceptual errors were found in the theory which make it unsuitable in its present form for predicting occupational choices and suggestions are made as to the possible correction of these. Secondly, a comparison is made between Atkinson's model and the expectancy-valence models currently utilized to describe and predict occupational decision-making. In particular Atkinson's incentive component is contrasted with the valence measure described by expectancy-valence models, and the possible influences of the motive factors (motive to succeed and motive to avoid failure) are considered since these are typically omitted by other models of career choice. Finally, the existence of sex differences in career choice, as well as in the various components of the model are studied and discussed. The changing conceptualization of ‘fear of success’ is also included in this consideration.     

How do objective and subjective career success interrelate over time?

The present research is concerned with the direction of influence between objective and subjective career success. We conducted a prospective longitudinal study with five waves of measurement that covered a time span of 10 years. Participants were professionals working in different occupational fields (N=1,336). We modelled the changes in objective success (income, hierarchical position), in other‐referent subjective success (subjective success as compared to a reference group), and in self‐referent subjective success (job satisfaction) by means of latent growth curve analysis. Objective success influenced both the initial level and the growth of other‐referent subjective success, but it had no influence on job satisfaction. Most importantly, both measures of subjective success and both their initial levels and their changes had strong influences on the growth of objective success. We conclude that the ‘objective success influences subjective success’ relationship is smaller than might be expected, whereas the ‘subjective success influences objective success’ relationship is larger than might be expected.     

Two sides of the career resources coin: Career adaptability resources and the impostor phenomenon

Considering the impostor phenomenon (IP) as an important psychological construct in the context of career development requires a theoretical grounding. Using the career construction model of adaptation as a guiding framework, we investigated how the IP is related to adaptive readiness (represented by core self-evaluations), career adaptability resources, and adapting responses, namely, career planning, career decision-making difficulties, career exploration, and occupational self-efficacy. We used parallel multiple mediation modeling to investigate specific indirect effects through concern, control, curiosity, confidence, and the IP. We conducted an online study with 289 university students. Results indicated a positive effect of core self-evaluations on career planning, career exploration, and occupational self-efficacy and a negative effect on career decision-making difficulties through adaptability resources. The IP emerged as a “maladaptability” resource: That is, it might be a hindrance to adaptive coping and behavior and consequently promote maladaptive coping and behavior by decreasing career planning and occupational self-efficacy and increasing career decision-making difficulties. Supplementary negative effects of the IP on adaptability resources are discussed.     

Job Characteristics That Influence the Career Success of Soldiers in the South African National Defence Force: An Analytical Review

Career success for solders is influenced by objective and subjective job qualities including their antecedents and mediators. This article considers the objective and subjective indicators of career success in the context of the South African National Defence Force (SANDF): achievement, satisfaction, mobility, organizational commitment and retention. Objective determinants of career success include the qualities of the physical environment, physical job demands on effort, typical job demands, role conflict and subjective occupational hazards and the organisational culture of the military. The subjective determinants that impact career success are psychological in nature, such as value conflict, job security and psychological contact. Outcomes for individuals vary as mediated by organizational culture, gender, period of service and education.     

Protean attitude and career success: The mediating role of self-management

A protean career attitude is considered as an important determinant of career success in the contemporary career era. In this article we test a model in which we specify the relationships between protean career attitude, career self-management behaviors, career insight, and career success outcomes (career satisfaction and perceived employability). A survey was conducted among a sample of 289 employees. The results support the idea that a protean career attitude is a significant antecedent of career success and that this relationship is fully mediated by the development of career insight. The implications of these findings for understanding the process through which career attitude affects individuals’ career success are discussed.     

Causal Attributions and Sex Differences Associated With Perceptions of Occupational Barriers

This study extends previous research addressing sex differences in perceived occupational barriers and evaluates the mediating role of causal attributions in the relationship between perceived occupational barriers and career maturity. Participants (85 women and 30 men) listed their perceived barriers to occupational goals, completed a measure of attributions for career decision making, and completed 2 different measures of career maturity. Findings revealed that a larger proportion of women than men perceived past barriers associated with family-related issues. Results also revealed a significant, negative relationship between the number of perceived occupational barriers and career maturity for participants who believe that career decision making is an externally caused, uncontrollable process. The implications of these findings and suggestions for career counselors to integrate perceived barriers into the counseling process are discussed.     

Protean attitude and career success: The mediating role of self-management

A protean career attitude is considered as an important determinant of career success in the contemporary career era. In this article we test a model in which we specify the relationships between protean career attitude, career self-management behaviors, career insight, and career success outcomes (career satisfaction and perceived employability). A survey was conducted among a sample of 289 employees. The results support the idea that a protean career attitude is a significant antecedent of career success and that this relationship is fully mediated by the development of career insight. The implications of these findings for understanding the process through which career attitude affects individuals’ career success are discussed.     

The relationship between vocational interests and the location of an ideal occupation in the individual's perceived occupational structure

The relationship between vocational interests and the location of an ideal occupation in the perceived occupational structure of career counselees was investigated. Ninety-six career counselees completed the RAMAK vocational interest inventory. Then, the occupational constructs of each subject were elicited by the career grid procedure. Finally, each subject rated 24 occupations and his/her ideal and rejected occupations on his/her own elicited constructs. The intrasubject analyses indicated that the preferences for occupational fields as measured by the interest inventory reflect the fields' proximity to an ideal occupation in the individual's perceived occupational structure. The implications for career development are discussed.     

Career development theory

Super's theory of vocational development, initially formulated in the 1950s, has led to a number of important research programmes, focusing particularly on the concept of vocational maturity. The major findings of these studies are surveyed in this paper. They suggest that vocational maturity is a development characteristic which increases with age, is multidimensional in nature, develops at different rates in different individuals, and can help in the pre-diction of occupational satisfaction, occupational success, and career success.