Maladaptive personality functioning within the big five and the five-factor model

The five-factor model (FFM) of general personality functioning was derived originally from lexical studies of trait terms within the English language. Many studies have been conducted on the relationship of the FFM to personality disorder symptomatology but, as yet, no lexical study of the representation of maladaptive personality functioning within a language has been conducted. The current study identified the distribution of socially undesirable trait terms within each of the poles of the Big Five and compared this distribution to findings obtained with FFM personality disorder measures. The implications of the results for a FFM of personality disorders and for the FFM assessment of maladaptive personality functioning are discussed.     

Experimental manipulation of NEO-PI-R items.

Research assessing the relationship of the Five-factor model (FFM) of personality to personality disorder symptomatology has generally been consistent with theoretical expectations. Three exceptions, however, have been failures to confirm predicted associations of the NEO-Personality Inventory-Revised (NEO-PI-R) Conscientiousness scale with obsessive-compulsive personality disorder symptomatology, the NEO-PI-R Agreeableness scale with dependent symptomatology, and the NEO-PI-R Openness scale with schizotypal symptomatology. It was the hypothesis of this study that these findings might be due in part to a relative emphasis on adaptive rather than maladaptive variants of these domains of personality functioning within the NEO-PI-R. This hypothesis was tested by experimentally altering NEO-PI-R items to reverse their implications for maladaptiveness. The predicted correlations of the FFM were confirmed with the experimentally altered items in a sample of 86 adult psychiatric outpatients.     

Experimental Manipulation of NEO-PI-R Items

Research assessing the relationship of the Five-factor model (FFM) of personality to personality disorder symptomatology has generally been consistent with theoretical expectations. Three exceptions, however, have been failures to confirm predicted associations of the NEO-Personality Inventory-Revised (NEO-PI-R; Costa & McCrae, 1992b) Conscientiousness scale with obsessive-compulsive personality disorder symptomatology, the NEO-PI-R Agreeableness scale with dependent symptomatology, and the NEO-PI-R Openness scale with schizotypal symptomatology. It was the hypothesis of this study that these findings might be due in part to a relative emphasis on adaptive rather than maladaptive variants of these domains of personality functioning within the NEO-PI-R. This hypothesis was tested by experimentally altering NEO-PI-R items to reverse their implications for maladaptiveness. The predicted correlations of the FFM were confirmed with the experimentally altered items in a sample of 86 adult psychiatric outpatients.     

The Millon Adolescent Personality Inventory profiles of depressed adolescents

The evidence indicates that adolescent depression may be more difficult to recognize than its adult counterpart, although the reasons for this difficulty remain unclear. The research in this area is in part impeded by the lack of adolescent-specific measures of personality functioning. In this study the personality styles, expressed concerns, and behavioral tendencies of depressed adolescents were investigated by means of the Millon Adolescent Personality Inventory (MAPI), a relatively new personality inventory designed specifically for this age group. Three hundred sixty-six high school students completed the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) and the MAPI, resulting in 332 valid and reliable MAPI profiles. The data were reduced to two factors, accounting for 65.1% of the total variance, by means of a principal components analysis. The two factors were interpreted as two dimensions of personality functioning associated with depression in adolescents. The first dimension suggested a socially withdrawn, overtly recognizable depression, whereas the second presents acting-out tendencies that may overshadow depressive symptomatology. The findings are integrated with the theoretical positions represented in the literature. Theoretical and practical implications for the use of the MAPI with depressed adolescents are discussed.     

The Validity of the PAT in the Selection of Tabulating Machine Operators: An Analysis of Predictive Power

For the past 4 decades Theodore Millon has provided the field with a series of articles and books that illustrate his unprecedented effort to build a unified science of personology and psychopathology. Especially significant is the nonreductionist synthesis of personology with universal principles grounded in the concept of evolution. His theoretically derived personality disorder prototypes are most unusual in that they correspond in almost all regards to the official Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed.; American Psychiatric Association, 1994) Axis II classification schema. In this article, I summarize major elements of Millon's model, past and present, including the personality disorder types and stages of personality development. Perhaps best known to the readers of Journal of Personality Assessment is his publication of several objective diagnostic instruments (e.g., Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory-III; Millon, Millon, &; Davis, 1994; Millon Adolescent Clinical Inventory; Millon, Millon, &; Davis, 1993). Most recent is the construction of a clinician-rated checklist (Millon Personality Disorder Checklist; Millon, 1997) of structural and functional forms of psychic pathology. I touch on these measures as well as his very recent framework of personality-guided, synergistic treatment for both Axis I syndromes and Axis II disorders.     

An Empirical Evaluation of Millon's Dimensional Polarities

LASTPAGE study investigated the theoretical consistency for Millon's dimensional polarities (T. Millon &; R. D. Davis, 1996; T. A. Widiger, 1999) by administering the Millon Index of Personality Styles (MIPS; T. Millon, 1994) and Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory-III (MCMI-III; T. Millon, 1997) to 50 university counseling center students. Data were analyzed by correlating the MIPS polarity dimension scales with the personality disorder scales of the MCMI-III. Findings suggested more inconsistencies than consistencies with the underlying theoretical model. The greatest discrepancies were found for the expected relationships between the polarity dimensions and the narcissistic and compulsive scales, and to a lesser degree, the schizoid, avoidant, schizotypal, and negativistic scales. Discussion concerned how these divergencies might best be understood in light of Millon's conceptualization of Axis II disorders.     

The Integration of Determinants and Content in Rorschach Interpretation

Millon has presented a grand and rich theory of personality disorder. Fundamental to this theory are three polarity dimensions (active-passive, pleasure-pain, and self-other) from which the personality disorders are said to be derived. This article reviews these polarity dimensions with respect to their conceptual relation with the personality disorder nomenclature, their assessment, and their empirical support.     

Convergent validity of the MCMI-III personality disorder scales and the MMPI-2 scales

The MCMI-III personality disorder scales (Millon, 1994) were empirically validated in a sample of prisoners, psychiatric inpatients, and outpatients (N = 477). The scale intercorrelations were congruent with those obtained by Millon, Davis, and Millon (1997). We conclude that our Flemish/Dutch version shows no significant differences with the original version of the MCMI-III as far as intercorrelations are concerned. Convergent validity of the MCMI-III personality disorder scales was evaluated by the correlational data between the MCMI-III personality disorder scales and the MMPI-2 clinical (Butcher, Dahlstrom, Graham, Tellegen, & Kaemmer, 1989) and personality disorder (Somwaru & Ben-Porath, 1995) scales. Improved convergence was obtained compared with previous versions of the MCMI-I. Only the compulsive MCMI-III personality disorder scale remains problematic. The scale even showed negative correlations with some of the related clinical scales and with the corresponding personality disorder scales of the MMPI-2.     

A comparison of the MCMI-III personality disorder and modifier indices with the MMPI-2 clinical and validity scales

In this study, we examined the relationship of the MCMI-III (Millon, Davis, & Millon, 1997; Millon, Millon, & Davis, 1994) modifier indices and personality disorder scales to the validity and basic clinical scales of the MMPI-2 (Butcher, Dahlstrom, Graham, Tellegen, & Kaemmer, 1989). The MCMI-III modifier indices highly correlated with all of the MMPI-2 validity scales except for the F(p) scale. Similarly, the MCMI-III personality disorder scales strongly covaried with the MMPI-2 validity and clinical scales except for the F(p) and 5 (Mf) scales. A factor analysis with Promax rotation revealed substantial relationships between the MMPI-2 and MCMI-III. However, the MMPI-2 F(p) scale did not tend to correlate with MMPI-2 or MCMI-III scales, indicating that F(p) scale variance was largely independent of other scales. The results suggest that clinicians should consider the interrelationship between personality characteristics and dissimulation.     

Understanding Psychopathy Using the Basic Elements of Personality

Psychopathy is a form of personality disorder characterized by arrogance, self‐absorption, callousness, exploitation, and impulsivity that is also strongly associated with antisocial behavior. The present paper argues that psychopathy can and should be understood as a configuration of personality traits from a general model of personality functioning – the five‐factor model (FFM). In this paper, we demonstrate that previous theoretical conceptualizations of psychopathy and current empirical ones converge on a general FFM profile characterized by very low scores on agreeableness and conscientiousness and mixed relations to aspects of neuroticism and extraversion. Further, we articulate the advantages to understanding psychopathy in this way. The FFM provides an assay of extant inventories, explains the factor structure of various inventories, accounts for the epidemiology of psychopathy, and makes sense of the litany of putative psychopathic deficits. Perhaps most importantly, the FFM provides a connection to basic research in personality.     

Treatment outcome for chronic PTSD among female assault victims with borderline personality characteristics: a preliminary examination

The present study examined the effect of the presence of borderline personality disorder characteristics (BPC) on patients' responses to cognitive behavioral treatment for chronic PTSD. Seventy-two female victims of sexual and non-sexual assault were randomly assigned to one of four treatment conditions: prolonged exposure (PE), stress inoculation training (SIT), combined treatment (PE/SIT), and wait list control (WL). Treatment consisted of nine bi-weekly individual sessions. Seventeen percent of the patients met full (10%) or partial criteria (7%) for borderline personality disorder. A greater number of patients with BPC reported sexual assault in childhood compared to those without the symptomatology. Patients with BPC also reported more pre-treatment anger. In general, those with BPC benefited significantly from treatment, although at post-treatment, they were less likely to achieve good end-state functioning than those without such symptomatology. The relationship between BPC and treatment response will be discussed.     

Current status of the scientific study of the personality disorders: an overview of epidemiological, longitudinal, experimental psychopathology, and neurobehavioral perspectives

Research on the nature and development of personality disorders has grown immensely over the past thirty years. A selective summary overview is given of the current status of the scientific study of the personality disorders from several perspectives, including the epidemiological, longitudinal, experimental psychopathology, and neurobehavioral perspectives. From this research, we now know that approximately 10 percent of the general population suffer from a diagnosable personality disorder. Moreover, contrary to nearly a century of theory and clinical pedagogy, modern longitudinal studies clearly suggest that personality disorders decrease in severity over time. The mechanisms by which this change occurs are not understood at present, though it is not likely that change in underlying normal personality systems drives the change in personality disorder. The methods of the experimental psychopathology laboratory, including neuroimaging approaches, are being brought to bear on the nature of personality disorders in efforts to relate neurobiological and neurocognitive functions to personality disorder symptomatology. A model that links personality disorder feature development to underlying, interacting brain-based neurobehavioral systems is reviewed in brief. Current issues and findings illustrative of these developments are given using borderline personality disorder as an exemplar. Finally, areas of intersection between psychoanalytic treatment approaches and the growing science of personality disorder are highlighted.     

MCMI characteristics of DSM-III-R bulimics

The literature on bulimia has suggested that bulimic women exhibit a number of pathological personality characteristics. However, the Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory (MCMI), an objective measure of personality functioning, has not previously been utilized to assess the personality characteristics of a bulimic population. The MCMI was administered to 37 female bulimics, 32 female general psychiatric outpatients, and 30 normal female controls in order to assess the relationship between bulimia and pathological personality traits. Bulimic women were found to score higher than the other groups on MCMI Scales 1 (Schizoid), 2 (Avoidant), and 3 (Dependent). They also scored lower than the other two groups on Scale 6 (Antisocial). Results are discussed within the framework of parallels between the MCMI profiles of bulimics and the existing literature on bulimics' personality characteristics.     

MCMI Characteristics of DSM-II-R Bulimics

The literature on bulimia has suggested that bulimic women exhibit a number of pathological personality characteristics. However, the Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory (MCMI), an objective measure of personality functioning, has not previously been utilized to assess the personality characteristics of a bulimic population. The MCMI was administered to 37 female bulimics, 32 female general psychiatric outpatients, and 30 normal female controls in order to assess the relationship between bulimia and pathological personality traits. Bulimic women were found to score higher than the other groups on MCMI Scales 1 (Schizoid), 2 (Avoidant), and 3 (Dependent). They also scored lower than the other two groups on Scale 6 (Antisocial). Results are discussed within the framework of parallels between the MCMI profiles of bulimics and the existing literature on bulimics' personality characteristics.     

The Relationship Between Forgiveness and Borderline Personality Symptomatology

The relationship between forgiveness and borderline personality symptomatology has been rarely studied. Using a consecutive cross-sectional sample of 307 internal medicine outpatients and a survey methodology, we examined correlations between the Forgiveness Scale and borderline personality symptomatology as measured by the borderline personality disorder scale of the Personality Diagnostic Questionnaire-4 and the Self-Harm Inventory. Numerous forgiveness subscales as well as the composite Forgiveness Scale score demonstrated statistically significant relationships with both measures for borderline personality symptomatology, such that individuals with this personality pathology demonstrated lower scores on these forgiveness subscales. Findings indicate that among individuals with borderline personality symptomatology, there are numerous aspects of forgiveness that are significantly lower than in individuals without this symptomatology.     

The incremental validity of passive-aggressive personality symptoms rivals or exceeds that of other personality symptoms in suicidal outpatients

We examined the incremental validity of passive-aggressive and other personality symptoms, by determining personality syndromes' ability to account for unique variance in distress and impairment as indexed by several Axis I-related symptoms. Two hundred fifty young adults, referred for suicidal behavior or ideation, completed the Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory (Millon, 1983) as well as several other symptom measures. The personality syndromes varied considerably in their ability to account for unique variance in Axis I-related symptoms. Several syndromes, including schizoid, schizotypal, and compulsive symptoms, showed relatively low incremental validity, whereas the incremental validity of passive-aggressive symptoms exceeded all others. The criterion of incremental validity represents an inclusive and persuasive means to evaluate personality disorder validity. On this criterion, passive-aggressive symptoms display high validity, and passive-aggressive personality disorder, in some form, may deserve inclusion on Axis II of future editions of Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (American Psychiatric Association).     

BULIMIC SYMPTOMATOLOGY IN HIGH SCHOOL GIRLS

This study tests the explanatory power of an integrated sociocultural and personality model in predicting bulimic symptomatology. Family, peer, and personality factors were assessed at three levels of analysis. The first level of the model measured the general functioning of the family system and friendship network. The second level assessed the extent to which the family system and friendship network were concerned with issues of weight and dieting, as well as the rate of eating disorders among members in these groups. The third level investigated the relationship of certain personality variables to bulimic symptoms. Based on self-report data from approximately 400 high school girls, correlates of bulimic symptomatology at each of the three levels of analysis were identified. An integrated model, in which the three levels of analysis were considered in unison, demonstrated that risk factors at each level of analysis cumulatively contribute to an increase in bulimic symptoms.     

The DSM-5 dimensional model of personality disorder: rationale and empirical support

Ideally, a dimensional model of normal and abnormal personality functioning within the forthcoming DSM-5 would represent a common ground among the existing alternative models and would be consistent with the substantial body of empirical research that has accumulated on such models. The DSM-5 Work Group had the opportunity to make an historic step toward the integration of the normal personality traits researched within psychology with the personality disorders of psychiatry. They chose instead to construct a cumbersome six-dimensional model of personality disorder that excludes normal personality traits, is inconsistent with the preponderance of the research, and is distinguished explicitly from the predominant dimensional model of general personality structure.