任务类型和性别属性对人际信任的影响

研究应用投资游戏任务及其变式,探讨了任务类型与性别属性对人际交往过程中信任给予和信任维持的影响。24名被试(平均年龄为20.41±1.99)通过轮组,完成了实验一和实验二的投资游戏任务。通过对投资比、返还比及其关系的比较和分析,结果发现:(1)在风险任务中,不同性别信任者的信任给予存在显著性差异,而且信任对象的性别属性对信任者的信任给予也存在显著性影响。(2)在无风险任务中,性别属性对信任对象的信任维持行为不存在显著影响,而信任者的信任给予对信任对象的行为具有显著的预测作用。这一结果表明,性别属性对人际信任的影响,与任务的风险性有关。     

信任者权力对其人际信任的影响

信任者权力对其人际信任的影响是基于双方权力的不对等实现的还是取决于信任者自身的权力水平的问题值得研究。为此,本研究在实验一中考查了信任博弈任务中信任者的权力感（与被信任者的权力水平无关）对其人际信任的影响,在实验二中通过角色扮演任务操纵信任者与被信任者的权力关系（对等vs.不对等）,同时测量信任者的人际信任倾向。结果表明：信任者自身的权力感影响其人际信任,低权力感个体比高权力感个体更信任他人;双方权力对等与否对信任者的人际信任倾向没有影响。可见,信任者权力更多是作为信任者自身的属性特征影响其人际信任,而不以双方权力层级不对等为前提。     

Trust and reciprocity decisions: The differing perspectives of trustors and trusted parties

This paper examines trusting actions and reciprocity responses in the two-person Trust Game. Two experiments test a model that suggests that individuals in social and economic interactions are likely to view the situation from their own unique perspective. The results demonstrate that trustors focus primarily on the risk associated with trusting, while trusted parties—those who are in a position to reciprocate—base their decisions on the level of benefits they have received. Specifically, trusting is more likely when risk is low, but the likelihood of trust does not depend on the level of benefit that trust provides to trusted parties. Meanwhile, reciprocity is more likely when the benefit provided is high, but does not depend on the level of risk the trustor faced. Neither party is particularly sensitive to the factors that affect their counterpart's decision. Furthermore, trustors underestimate the extent to which the level of benefits they provide might affect the trusted party' decision to reciprocate. Responses to a post-experimental questionnaire provide additional support for the proposition that the parties view the interaction from markedly different perspectives. Implications of this are discussed.     

主题情境和信任特质对大学生信任圈的影响

以395名大学生为被试,采用2×4×2的混合设计考察了主题情境(内容和风险等级)和信任特质对大学生信任圈规模和成分的影响。结果表明:(1)主题情境的内容对信任圈的规模和成分均有影响,在借钱情境下的信任圈规模显著大于分享负面信息情境,且两者的信任对象排序也有所不同;(2)随着主题情境的风险等级提高,两种情境下的信任圈规模均减少,但借钱情境下的信任圈规模减少更多,四种风险下信任圈成分无显著变化;(3)信任特质对两种主题情境下的大学生信任圈规模均有显著影响,高信任的被试信任圈规模较大,但对信任圈成分无显著影响;(4)信任圈成分总体呈现出亲人、熟人和陌生人的差序格局。     

Age-related similarities and differences in first impressions of trustworthiness

Trust is a particularly under-studied aspect of social relationships in older age. In the current study, young (n = 35) and older adults (n = 35) completed a series of one-shot social economic trust games in which they invested real money with trustees. There were potential gains with each investment and also a risk of losing everything if the trustee was untrustworthy. The reputation and facial appearance of each trustee were manipulated to make them appear more or less trustworthy. Results revealed that young and older adults invest more money with trustees whose facial appearance and reputation indicate that they are trustworthy rather than untrustworthy. However, older adults were more likely than young to invest with trustees who had a reputation for being untrustworthy. We discuss whether age-related differences in responding to negative information may account for an age-related increase in trust, particularly when trusting someone with a reputation for being uncooperative.     

Trust maintenance as a function of construal level and attributions: The case of apologies

When do recipients of an apology (“trustors”) base their decision to trust a perpetrator (a “trustee”) on the attributional information embedded in an apology? Attributions provide a detailed account of the trustee's causal involvement in committing a transgression. We therefore argue that trustors in a low construal level mindset use this information in their trusting decision. However, trustors in a high construal level mindset likely consider all apologies as simple statements of regret, regardless of the attributional information they contain. We find support for this argument in four laboratory experiments. This research nuances the idea that to restore trust by means of an apology, the trustee must only use an effective attribution for a negative outcome. We also present a more realistic understanding of the process leading from apologies to trust than has been offered in previous work by simultaneously considering the role of the trustor and that of the trustee in the trust restoration process.     

组织内信任研究的核心问题及其发展趋势

信任是当前组织领域研究的热点。文章通过对组织中信任研究核心问题的梳理,得出信任研究发展的以下趋势：重视情景因素、信任者主动性和情感因素对信任的影响,重视快速信任、信任发展中的动机化归因过程以及对信任机制的研究,关注社会网络分析与传统信任测量的结合。未来研究在把握上述发展趋势的同时,应在关系模式下理解信任的内涵、关注宏观层面情景因素对信任的影响、开展纵向研究验证信任发展模型以及建立信任机制的整合模型。     

Imposters,Tricksters, and Trustworthiness as an Epistemic Virtue

This paper argues that trustworthiness is an epistemic virtue that promotes objectivity. I show that untrustworthy imposture can be an arrogant act of privilege that silences marginalized voices. But, as epistemologists of ignorance have shown, sometimes trickery and the betrayal of epistemic norms are important resistance strategies. This raises the question: when is betrayal of trust epistemically virtuous? After establishing that trust is central to objectivity, I argue for the following answer: a betrayal is epistemically vicious when it strengthens or promotes oppressive, exclusive networks of trust, and a betrayal is epistemically virtuous when it expands trust networks to involve the oppressed. These criteria correctly account for both the epistemic vice of a recent case of Internet imposture and the epistemic virtue of resistant tricksters.     

Does betrayal aversion really guide trust decisions towards strangers?

Trust is a double-edged sword. When warranted, it leads to positive and rewarding interactions. When not, it leads to disappointment and anger. Therefore, it has been argued that people will display “betrayal aversion” in trust situations (i.e., avoid trusting to avoid betrayal). Yet, people also feel tense and uneasy when they signal distrust to another person and thus show signs of “principled trustfulness” (i.e., choosing to trust others although being skeptical of their trustworthiness). These two theoretical orientations imply directly opposite influences on trust behavior. Thus, we conducted two laboratory studies (with a total of 841 participants) with binary trust games (implying a risk of being betrayed) and extended lottery games (implying no such risk). In both studies, we varied the payoff structures of both games. Further, we made sure that the average perceived likelihood of winning or losing money when choosing the risky option was identical in both games, as was the distribution of these likelihoods. Neither study showed any sign of betrayal aversion. Rather, participants were more willing to risk their money in the trust game than they were to invest their money in a lottery, supporting the principled trustfulness view. We discuss possible explanations why, unlike previous studies, we did not find any indication of betrayal aversion.     

Unraveling: Betrayal and the Loss of Goodness in the Analytic Relationship

Reacting to a general distrust of government and authority that many people are feeling these days, this paper follows some developments of trust and of its betrayal in both the normal and clinical situations. It suggests that many are profoundly anxious about betrayal and that adequate parenting helps us learn how to overcome inevitable betrayal traumas and continue without losing hope. It recalls Freud’s own feelings of betrayal when he learned that hysterics lie and later when Dora stopped treatment, and it suggests that these betrayals may have been one factor in his turn from the clinical to the theoretical. It discusses trust in the clinical situation through the lens of the Freud–Ferenczi controversy and with special emphasis on early trauma and the kind of setting that may be necessary for the reestablishment of basic trust.     

Attributions of trust and the calculus of reciprocity

This research investigated trust and reciprocity in two experiments using the Trust Game. In the Trust Game, Player 1 can “trust” an unknown Player 2 by sending some portion of a monetary endowment. The amount sent triples on its way to Player 2, who can then “reciprocate” by returning as much as he or she wishes to Player 1. Initial endowments were either $10 or $20 and were known to recipients; amounts sent were experimentally manipulated and varied from $2 to the entire endowment. Although many trusted parties returned enough money to equalize outcomes, trustors only benefited, on average, when they sent all or almost all of their endowments. Results suggested that recipients viewed sending less than everything as a lack of trust and that felt obligations mediated choices to reciprocate. These and other results contrast markedly with traditional, incremental models of the trust process, which suggest that initial trustors should take small risks and build trust gradually.     

不同人际情境影响工作记忆的初探

采用信任博弈任务创设人际信任、人际背叛及背叛后利他惩罚三种人际情境,探讨三种人际情境对不同任务难度工作记忆的影响。结果发现：（1）随着工作记忆的难度增加,三组正确率均显著下降。在低难度任务中,人际信任组和背叛后利他惩罚组正确率均高于人际背叛组;中等难度任务中,人际信任组正确率高于背叛后利他惩罚组和人际背叛组;高难度任务中,三组正确率无明显差异;（2）随着工作记忆的难度增加,三组反应时均显著增加。低难度任务中,人际信任组、背叛后利他惩罚组反应时均低于人际背叛组;中等难度和高难度任务中,三组反应时无明显差异。结论：人际信任、人际背叛及背叛后利他惩罚对工作记忆有不同作用。     

Betrayal aversion: When agents of protection become agents of harm

A form of betrayal occurs when agents of protection cause the very harm that they are entrusted to guard against. Examples include the military leader who commits treason and the exploding automobile air bag. We conducted five studies that examined how people respond to criminal betrayals, safety product betrayals, and the risk of future betrayal by safety products. We found that people reacted more strongly (in terms of punishment assigned and negative emotions felt) to acts of betrayal than to identical bad acts that do not violate a duty or promise to protect. We also found that, when faced with a choice among pairs of safety devices (air bags, smoke alarms, and vaccines), most people preferred inferior options (in terms of risk exposure) to options that included a slim (0.01%) risk of betrayal. However, when the betrayal risk was replaced by an equivalent non-betrayal risk, the choice pattern was reversed. Apparently, people are willing to incur greater risks of the very harm they seek protection from to avoid the mere possibility of betrayal.     

组织内信任对任务绩效的影响效应

通过问卷调查,对组织内信任与工作绩效之间的关系进行了研究。研究采用结构方程建模方法,通过建构6个嵌套模型和2个非嵌套模型,将其与假设模型进行比较验证研究假设。结果表明,个体对于直接领导、同事和高层管理者的信任都会对个体的工作绩效产生影响,并且彼此间的效应相互独立,彼此互补。同时,研究也讨论了多种不同信任对个体工作行为产生影响的过程中,个体对不同对象知觉对其行为复杂影响,并发现对高层管理者信任对工作绩效的影响效应部分由对直接领导的信任中介     

Perceived trustworthiness of knowledge sources: the moderating impact of relationship length

Prior meta-analytic evidence has indicated no association between relationship length and perceived trustworthiness. Viewing trustors as information processors, the authors propose a model in which relationship length, although having no direct effect on perceived trustworthiness, moderates the association between perceived trustworthiness and the basis on which people decide to trust each other. Specifically, as trustors learn about others, they base their trust on different kinds of information (demographic similarity, trustworthy behavior, and shared perspective). Hierarchical multiple regression analyses of a field survey of supervisors and subordinates from 3 companies (N = 88) provide evidence consistent with this prediction: Perceived trustworthiness is associated with demographic similarity in newer relationships, with trustworthy behavior in relationships that are neither brand new nor old but in-between, and with shared perspective in older relationships.     

Elements of trust: Risk and perspective-taking

Trust is essential to personal well-being and economic success, but it cannot occur without accepting the possibility of betrayal. In the experimental trust game, game-theoretic rationality prescribes that trust decisions should depend on the potential risk (egocentric costs and benefits) and the probability of reciprocity (derived from the trustee's temptation to defect). The current work tests the relative weights of these elements. Experiment 1 shows that trust increases when costs decrease and benefits increase. The latter finding is critical because increasing the trustor's benefit also means increasing the trustee's temptation to defect. Hence, this finding suggests that egocentrism prevails over perspective-taking. Experiment 2 shows that the trustee's temptation to defect (negatively) affects trust, but only when the trustor's cost and benefit are favorable. Results are interpreted as reflecting a boundedly rational decision process.     

Relationship closeness and trauma narrative detail: A critical analysis of betrayal trauma theory

Betrayal Trauma Theory (BTT) holds that certain traumas, such as incest, should be uniquely categorized as betrayal trauma: a subcategory of trauma in which the violation of trust, within a close relationship, occurs in the context of a traumatic event. According to BTT, betrayal trauma results in either partial or complete traumatic amnesia because repression is adaptive when a victim depends on a perpetrator for physical or emotional needs. In a test of BTT, undergraduates screened for betrayal and non‐betrayal trauma histories provided detailed accounts of these events. In order to account for threats to internal validity that are often overlooked by traumatic amnesia researchers, we also assessed factors known to compromise narrative detail. Consistent with BTT predictions, more betrayal was associated with less detailed trauma narratives. However, this relationship was no longer significant after controlling for survivor age, avoidance symptoms, gender and purposeful omission of detail. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Perceived trustworthiness of online shops

• Trust has been found to be crucial for consumer behaviour towards online shops. However, existing studies on the role of trust in electronic commerce are mainly based on ad hoc scales to measure trustworthiness, merely rely on self‐reported consequences of trust such as intention to buy, and focus on low‐risk products.
• In a web‐based study, 634 participants interacted with a provider of medical goods, that is a simulated online pharmacy. The study develops and employs a psychometrically sound scale for assessing perceived trustworthiness of online shops. Moreover, it examines the impact of trustworthiness on both consumers' intended and actual behaviour towards online shops.
• Results show that trustworthiness promotes both intention to buy and actual financial risk taking. Perceived risk was not found to moderate the relationship between trustworthiness and intention to buy. Instead, trustworthiness partially mediated the influence of perceived risk on intention to buy. The results from the scale development challenge multidimensional conceptualizations of trust; comparing this finding with other studies suggests that the duration of the relationship might moderate the dimensionality of trust.

Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Understanding the effects of substantive responses on trust following a transgression

Four experiments were conducted to investigate the implications of ‘substantive’ responses for the repair of trust following a violation and the cognitive processes that govern how and when they are effective. These studies examined two forms of substantive responses, penance and regulation, that represent different categories of trust repair attempts. The findings from Studies 1–3 suggest that both can be effective to the extent that they elicit the crucial mediating cognition of perceived repentance. Data from Study 2 revealed that trustors saw signals of repentance as more informative when the transgression was due to a lapse of competence than due to a lapse of integrity. Study 4 compared these substantive responses to apologies (a non-substantive response) and revealed that, despite their surface-level differences, they each repaired trust through ‘perceived repentance.’ The paper offers an integrative framework for understanding the relationships among a range of trustor responses.     

Personal trust extends cooperation beyond trustees: A Mexican study

We studied 2 groups of workers from Oaxaca (Mexico) with different levels of income and education to investigate the role that the affective‐based psychological mechanism of personal trust, as evolutionarily acquired, plays on group cooperation. We measured trust levels through some questionnaires and cooperative behaviour through an iterated prisoner's dilemma under different conditions and analysed trust networks of group members. While these groups did not differ in trust levels or cooperation among trustees, they did differ in terms of cooperation with other group members. Such differences are related to dissimilarities in the trust network topology—as a measure of group cohesion. These results suggest that some personal trust networks extend cooperation within a group beyond trustees in a way that complements the role of the reputation for indirect reciprocity.